The Understen-Märket trench is located in the Southern Quark and is the only deep-water connection between the Baltic Propper and the Gulf of Bothnia. Bathymetric mapping reveals a number of eroded channels and drift deposits exists on the seafloor, indicating that the area is heavily affected by current activity. Bottom current behavior in the area is not thoroughly understood, but generally in the BalticBasin, there is southward flowing fresh surface waters compensated by denser northward-flowing more saline bottom waters. The dominant direction of flow for bottom waters in the Southern Quark is northward. Northward speeds often exceed the threshold required to erode fine material on the seafloor. Using geophysical data and marine sediment cores, this study shows that current eroded channels and drift deposits in the Understen-Märket trench were initially formed in the late Holocene between 3 – 4kyr BP, during the transition from the Littorina to the Post Littorina stages of the Baltic Sea. Application of the sortable silt (SS) proxy for current sorting show three distinct regimes that closely match the assigned lithologic units (LU) based on core descriptions. Downcore grain size analysis of three marine sediment cores reveals a gradual boundary to sandy sediments that caps two of the cores recovered from an eroded channel. The third core was recovered from the drift deposit which mostly consists of silt. The progressive coarsening suggests that the current activity has increased during the late Holocene. A simplified model is presented that shows how moderate (20-50 m) shallowing of the sill, which has occurred in response to isostatic rebound between 8 and 4 kyr BP, could have generated the higher current speeds seen today. However, this should be explored using more advanced paleo-circulation models.

In marine ecosystems around the world, iron (Fe) is a well-studied and important trace element which has been found to stimulate phytoplankton and cyanobacteria growth, as well as limit nitrogen fixation and being essential for Legionella pneumophila which is known as the main cause of Legionnaires’ disease. Fe also contributes to the brownification of freshwater and has recently been documented to increase in concentration in rivers in Sweden. The aim of this study was to investigate the link between Fe and humic substances (HS) in rivers and a coastal area in the northern Baltic Sea. In late winter, surface samples from rivers and the coast were analyzed for Fe, HS, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), pH, salinity, and temperature. Overall, the results showed a positive correlation between Fe and HS, indicating a terrestrial input of Fe. Other variables affecting Fe and HS including pH, salinity, and temperature were analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA), which showed spatial variations between river and coastal samples. Fe is known to be transported in water as two main carrier phases, Fe-OM complexes and Fe-oxyhydroxides. Which carrier phase is the most contributing depends on multiple factors, including catchment characteristics, seasonal variations, and water chemistry. Understanding the link between Fe and HS in land-sea transitional areas is important since terrestrial Fe is identified as a source of bioavailable Fe in marine waters such as the Baltic Sea.

The Baltic Sea is a brackish body of water in the heart of Europe, and within it lives a small whale: the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise. However, this animal is becoming increasingly more endangered. Due to various man-made threats, less than 500 animals remain in the sea. This thesis aims to provide a comprehensive overview of this issue with a political approach through discussing how the state of this animal reflects on the European Union. Furthermore, it investigates the European Commission's role and takes a closer look at EU Biodiversity Strategy 2030 to detect potential greenwashing. Through the case study of the harbor porpoise, the central conflict between the European Union and the conservationists aiming to save the animal gets illuminated from different perspectives. The analysis makes use of European integration theory as well as a deconstructive approach, through which the study is able to detect that the issue largely stems from the respective member states. Moreover, it finds that the approaches of the European Commission and the conservationist align at the core principles. With the help of an interview conducted with a field expert, these points can be emphasized. Reflecting on the findings it can be concluded that essential regulations are finally being put into place, but there is still a long way to go to save the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise.

During the Cold War, NATO had proved itself successful in protecting the West. Therefore, NATO was seen as an organization that had the potential of maintaining security, democracy and peace. It has been repeatedly suggested that the US promised Russia no more NATO expansion. A promise which was broken in the 90s. During the 90s the Clinton Doctrine introduced a new way of expanding democracy. The US, NATO and EU began to argue that NATO was an extension of democracy, peace and economic prosperity, which was especially prominent during the expansion to the Baltic states. The expansion to the Baltics made Russia sensitive towards expansion to other post-Soviet regions. Interestingly, during this expansion US-Russian relations were stable and featured extensive cooperations between NATO and Global War on Terror missions. Moreover, the US made several treaties to keep relations stable in the Baltic Sea region, and they also promoted economic trade with both the Baltic states and Russia.

Sverige har generellt god tillgång till vatten, dock varierar vattentillgången och vattenanvändningen inom olika områden runtom i landet och lokala vattenbrister kan förekomma. Vattenbristen drabbar i första hand befolkning med enskild vattenförsörjning som får dricksvatten från enskilda vattentäkter, vanligen grundvattenbrunnar. Vid Sveriges kustområden och skärgårdsöar, där grundvattennivåer sjunker samtidigt som saltvatteninträngningar drabbar allt fler brunnar, aktualiseras avsaltning av havsvatten som en möjlig lösning för potentiell dricksvattenförsörjning. Antalet småskaliga avsaltningsanläggningar ökar men exakt antal förblir okänt. Detta beror på att anläggningar som producerar mindre än 10m3/dygn och inte används inom livsmedel eller offentlig verksamhet inte är anmälningspliktiga. Detta examensarbete grundar sig i en litteratur- och enkätstudie som syftar till att sammanställa kunskapsläget kring avsaltningstekniker för saltvatten samt de juridiska och organisatoriska aspekter som kan påverka implementering av avsaltningsanläggningar förprivat bruk i Sverige. Dessutom presenteras en marknadsöversikt över 6 ledande avsaltningsleverantörer samt en exempelsamling över 3 avsaltningsanläggningar som finns runt om i Stockholms län. Resultaten visar att membranbaserad avsaltning är den mest energieffektiva metoden för saltavskiljning. Membrantekniken omvänd osmos används för småskalig avsaltning av havsvatten i Sverige och på den svenska marknaden återfinns en rad olika teknikleverantörer och återförsäljare som specialiserar sig på avsaltning. Över 5500 småskaliga avsaltningsanläggningar kunde identifieras som sålda i Stockholm skärgård, dock uppskattas det totala antalet avsaltningsanläggningar i bruk vara betydligt högre. Resultaten visar även att svenska kommuner har dålig kunskap om avsaltning. Småskaliga avsaltningsanläggningar som används för enskild vattenförsörjning faller inte under anmälnings- eller tillståndsplikt utifrån kapitel 11 Miljöbalken. Detta medför att kommuner saknar kunskap om icke-anmälningspliktiga avsaltningsanläggningar som finns i bruk inom kommunen. Den rådande kunskapsbristen leder till svårigheter vid bedömning av avsaltningslämplighet för enskild vattenförsörjning vid bygglovsansökningar och kustkommuner efterfrågar tydlig vägledning från nationella myndigheter. Slutsatsen är att i dagsläget finns ett stort behov av kunskapshöjande insatser kring avsaltning och ett nationellt samarbete krävs i syfte att ta fram en samlad bedömning och standardiserad hantering av frågor om avsaltning för enskild vattenförsörjning. Kustkommuner bör även vidta åtgärder för att öka kunskap om de avsaltningsanläggningar som finns i bruk inom kommunen i syfte att bedöma vattenkvaliteten vid dessa anläggningar och säkerställa att miljöbalkens föreskrifter om hälsoskydd uppfylls. / Sweden generally has good access to water. However, water supply and water use vary in different areas around the country and local water scarcity may occur. The water scarcity primarily affects households with individual water supply who receive drinking water from individual water sources, usually groundwater wells. At Sweden’s coastal areas and archipelago islands, where groundwater levels are decreasing at the same time as saltwater intrusion is affecting more and more wells, desalination of seawater is being brought up as a possible solution for potential drinking water supply. The number of small-scale desalination plants is increasing, but the exact number remains unknown. This thesis is based on a literature and questionnaire study which aims to compile the state of knowledge about desalination techniques for salt water and the legal and organizational aspects that may affect the implementation of desalination plants for private use in Sweden. In addition, a market overview of 6 leading desalination suppliers and a collection of examples of 3 desalination plants located around Stockholm County is presented. The results show that membrane-based desalination is the most energy-efficient method for salt separation. The membrane technology, reverse osmosis, is used for small-scale desalination of seawater in Sweden, and on the Swedish market there are a number of different technology suppliers and retailers that specialize in desalination. More than 5,500 small-scale desalination plants could be identified as sold in the Stockholm archipelago, however, the total number of desalination plants in use is estimated to be significantly higher. The results also show that Swedish municipalities have lacking knowledge of desalination. Small-scale desalination plants used for individual water supply do not fall under the notification or permit requirement based on Chapter 11 of the Environmental Code. This means that municipalities lack knowledge about non-notifiable desalination plants that are in use within the municipality. The current lack of knowledge leads to difficulties in assessing the desalination suitability for individual water supply in building permit applications and coastal municipalities require clear guidance from national authorities. In conclusion, currently there is a great need for knowledge-enhancing initiatives regarding desalination and national cooperation is required in order to produce an overall assessment and standardized handling of issues concerning desalination for individual water supply. Coastal municipalities should also take measures to increase knowledge about the desalination plants in use within the municipality in order to assess the water quality from these facilities and ensure that the Environmental Code's regulations on health protection are complied with.

The number of Swedish fishers has been in decline for many years. In 1930, there were almost 18000 fishing vessels in Sweden. The same number in 2022 was just under 1000. Along the Swedish northern Baltic coast, there are now 243 active vessels, compared to 1279 vessels in 1970. Apart from declining fish stocks, it is likely that other societal, cultural, economic, and ecological factors have affected the decline in the number of fishers. In particular, small-scale fishers in the area have expressed concerns about the result and goals of national and international fishing policy. The aim of this thesis is to investigate how national and international policy have contributed to the decline of small-scale fisheries along the Swedish northern Baltic coast between the 1970s and today. In the 1970s, Swedish fishing policy underwent a major change in focus, shifting towards an economic approach where efficiency and catch size played an important role. By comparing interviews conducted with small-scale fishers and families in Västernorrland during the 1970s to interviews conducted with active small-scale fishers today, the fisher’s perspective of what factors have been driving the development, the effects of policy for small-scale fisheries as well as the biggest differences between the past and current situation will be shown. The results highlight a strong decline in the number of fishers and vessels, a declining belief in the future, declining herring stocks and a declining trust in authorities among the fishers. This can in many ways be seen as a result of Sweden’s long history of capacity enhancing fishing policy, as well as the general development the Swedish northern Baltic region has undergone in the past 60 years. The results underline the importance of policy for the development of both small- and large-scale fisheries. The results of this thesis can be used to better understand the effects Swedish and European fishing policy have had on the development of Swedish northern Baltic small-scale fisheries from the fisher’s perspective. This can be useful to develop new policies that aim to preserve and strengthen the position of the small-scale fisheries.

Intergovernmental cooperation on collective action problems and social dilemmas faces significant challenges, as difficulties often stem from conflicts between national self-interests and collective long-term goals, lack of trust, and uncertainty about other states' commitments. Transboundary environmental issues demonstrate a clear example of collective action problems and social dilemmas, in which the Baltic Sea and HELCOM constitute such a case.  The Baltic Sea is one of the most polluted seas in the world, which in turn has placed demands on the surrounding countries to address and rectify these issues through the establishment of an intergovernmental organization, in the shape of HELCOM. HELCOM is therefore the responsible body tasked with tackling this, through policymaking and cooperation within the Baltic Sea region. Despite efforts made in the area, HELCOM has not succeeded in achieving its many goals, making HELCOM an interesting case to study. This thesis aims to research how the key institutions of HELCOM are designed, and how they influence its governance and decision-making processes using the IAD framework, and to investigate how institutional design shapes collective action outcomes. These questions aim to contribute to the study's purpose, which is to analyze institutional choices within intergovernmental collaborations and to examine the relationship between institutional design and collective action. The thesis is conducted using qualitative text analysis, specifically applying qualitative content analysis to answer the study's research questions. The empirical data consists of official HELCOM documents, which form the basis for the results presented in this study.  The study's results show that HELCOM, like other intergovernmental organizations, can be explained and understood through the IAD framework. Based on this investigation, the IAD framework could highlight that HELCOM's key institutions are designed similar, even though their area of competence differentiates. Furthermore, the study's results indicate that the design of different rules within an organization has a significant impact on the outputs of actions characterized by collective action, as it turned out that the results of various measures within HELCOM's institutional arrangements varied between different working groups. Thus, there may be incentives and benefits in designing the institutional arrangements of intergovernmental organizations in different ways, to achieve a more effective approach to combating collective action problems.

Interaction between minerals and bacteria represents an abundant natural phenomenon depictingnature's complexity and how abiotic and biotic components are intertwined. This interaction is evidentin modern-day ecosystems, and it significantly shaped the early stage of life on Earth by influencinggeochemical processes. Evidence of this interaction includes microbialites. In the first part, this master's thesis explores the impact of iron-redox bacteria on the magneticproperties of synthetic and natural magnetic materials, with significant implications for understandingearly Earth conditions and paleoenvironments. In the second part, the magnetic signal recorded in thesediment core from the Baltic Sea is examined to identify the ferrimagnetic minerals responsible for itand their origin (biotic versus abiotic). A better understanding of the origin of ferrimagnetic mineralsallows for a more conclusive interpretation of palaeomagnetism and palaeoenvironmental history of theBaltic Sea. In both parts, the change in magnetic susceptibility was used as the main method to depictmechanisms of mineral-bacteria interaction. Experiment with iron-oxidising bacteria (Leptothrix mobilis) showed a decrease in magneticsusceptibility over time, consistent with the oxidation of solid iron/magnetic materials. However, asmall difference between bacteria culture and control samples points out that the decrease is caused byabiotic oxidation rather than bacterial. Supporting evidence is the absence of viable cells in all bacterialsamples, suggesting that L. mobilis did not grow in these experiments. In experiments with iron-reducing bacteria (Geobacter sulfurreducens), magnetic susceptibility increased by 7%. Controlsamples with the same reducing media did not show a change in magnetic susceptibility, indicating thatthe susceptibility change is caused by bacterial reduction of iron oxides. Magnetic susceptibility signal obtained in the sediment core from the Baltic Sea indicates rapidlyoxidising, ferrimagnetic nanoparticles in two organic-rich sapropels. The pattern of the signal isconsistent with the presence of bacterial greigite (magnetofossils). Contrary to previous research, nomagnetic enhancement is observed in these layers.  Magnetic susceptibility, as a non-destructive and relatively simple method, may serve as a significantindicator of mineral-bacterial interactions. Combining it with other techniques and methods can providedeeper insights into the mechanisms behind these interactions. This approach can reveal the importanceof these interactions on early Earth, enhance our understanding of palaeomagnetism, and unveil possibleconditions of ancient environments.

En av de största utmaningarna i dagens samhälle är att säkerställa hållbar utveckling, vilket ingick i FN:s sjunde milleniemål med måldatum 2015. Östersjön är ett särskilt känsligt innanhav med en hotad biologisk mångfald och en utbredd övergödningsproblematik. År 2001 gav Helcom, en samarbetsorganisation för alla Östersjöländer, rekommendationen att införa ett förbud mot utsläpp av toalettavfall från fritidsbåtar som ett steg i att begränsa tillförseln av näringsämnen till Östersjön. Den 1 april år 2015 infördes förbudet i Sverige. Under de följande månaderna blev förbudet mycket uppmärksammat i media och det har sedan dess förekommit en stor kvantitet synpunkter på förbudet. Från april till oktober 2015 inkom 182 anmälningar gällande brister i hamnars mottagande av toalettavfall till Transportstyrelsen. Studien syftar till att utvärdera förbudets potentiella bidrag till hållbar utveckling, att undersöka fritidsbåtsägares syn på utsläppsförbudet samt att ge förslag till förbättringar för att förbudet enklare ska kunna efterlevas för fritidsbåtsägare. Studien genomfördes med en kombination av olika metoder. Huvudmomentet utgjordes av kvalitativa intervjuer med fritidsbåtsägare. Som komplement skickades en webbenkät till 109 personer. Svarsfrekvensen beräknades till 92 procent, vilket belyser det stora engagemang som funnits i att delta i studien. Därutöver sammanställdes de brister och synpunkter som rapporterats in till Transportstyrelsen. Författarna har även deltagit i seminarier. Resultaten visar att majoriteten av fritidsbåtsägarna anser att förbudet är korrekt och att principen att inte släppa ut toalettavfall i Östersjön är riktig. Enligt webbenkäten skulle 64 av 99 personer tömma båtens septiktank i havet om det inte fanns någon fungerande mottagningsanordning inom deras färdväg. Situationen speglas även i förbättringsförslagen då det mest frekvent förekommande förslaget är att bygga ut nätet med mottagningsanordningar och att säkerställa att befintliga anordningar är i drift och fungerar. Fritidsbåtsägarna gav flera argument både för och emot förbudet och hade även synpunkter på förbudets utformning. Två vanligt förekommande argument för förbudet var vikten av att ta ansvar för sina egna utsläpp och den sanitära olägenheten att bada i samma vatten som någon släpper ut toalettavfall i. Tre vanliga motargument var att regleringar för andra aktörer som jordbruk, industrier och kommunala bräddavlopp bör införas innan regleringar för fritidsbåtsägare, att toalettavfallet sprids ut i en så stor volym vatten och att båtliv ska innebära frihet. Förbudet kan bidra till hållbar utveckling ur såväl det sociala, ekonomiska och ekologiska perspektivet trots att utsläpp av näringsämnen från fritidsbåtar utgör en mindre andel av de totala utsläppskvantiteterna. Flera av Östersjöns ekosystemtjänster hotas av övergödning, exempelvis livsmedelsproduktion, biologisk mångfald och estetiska värden. Författarna till denna rapport anser därmed att alla ekonomiskt rimliga åtgärder kan motiveras ur ett ekosystemtjänstperspektiv för att inte riskera kommande generationers möjlighet att uppfylla sina behov. Förbudet bidrar ytterligare till den sociala dimensionen av hållbarhet genom att det medför en ökad medvetenhet kring problematiken relaterad till Östersjöns miljötillstånd. Författarna rekommenderar i första hand att det byggs flera landtoaletter och sugtömningsanordningar. Placeringen av dessa bör ses över av en aktör med ett övergripande ansvar. Spridning av information kring var det finns utplacerade mottagningsanordningar rekommenderas, exempelvis via en applikation i mobiltelefonen och utmärkning på sjökort. Därutöver bör information om vilka regler som gäller för fritidsbåtsägare och hamnansvariga spridas, samt tydliga användarinstruktioner på mottagningsanordningarna vara mer frekvent förekommande. / One of the greatest challenges in today’s society is to ensure sustainable development, which was included in the UN:s 7th millennium goal with target date 2015. The Baltic Sea is an extra sensitive inland sea with a threatened biodiversity and widespread eutrophication problems. In 2001 Helcom, a cooperation organization for all Baltic Sea countries, gave the recommendation to prohibit discharge of sewage from pleasure craft as a step to limit the input of nutrients to the Baltic Sea. The 1st of April 2015 the prohibition was introduced in Sweden. In the following months the prohibition got a lot of attention in media and many people commented upon it. From April to October 2015, Transportstyrelsen received 182 notifications about deficiencies in ports’ reception of sewage. This study aims at evaluating the prohibitions’ contribution to sustainable development, examining the owners of pleasure craft’s view of the sewage prohibition and to come up with improvement proposals in order to make it easier for pleasure craft owners to follow the prohibition. The study was conducted with a combination of different methods. The main part consisted of qualitative interviews with pleasure craft owners. As a complement, a web questionnaire was distributed to 109 persons. The response rate was estimated to 92 percent, which highlights the great intrest to participate in the study. The notifications that were reported by Transportstyrelsen’s web form were compiled as well. The authors have also participated in seminars with different actors. The results of the study shows that the majority of the pleasure craft owners thought that the prohibition was correct and the principle of not emitting sewage in the Baltic Sea was appropriate. According to the web questionnaire 64 of 99 people would empty the septic tank of the boat in the sea if there was no functioning emptying equipment in their route. This was also reflected in the improvement proposals where the most common proposals were to expand the network of emptying equipment and to ensure that the existing stations are in operation. The pleasure craft owners stated several arguments both for and against the prohibition and also commented on the formation of the prohibition. Two common arguments with the prohibition were the importance of taking responsibility of your own emissions and the sanitary inconvenience in bathing in the same water as someone is discharging sewage in. Three common counterarguments were that regulations for other actors as agriculture, industries and municipal overflow outlets should be introduced before regulations for pleasure craft owners, that the sewage is spread out in a large amount of water and that boating should stand for freedom. The prohibition can contribute to sustainable development both from the social, economic and ecological dimensions despite that the emissions of nutrients from the pleasure boats represent a small proportion of the total amount of emissions. Several ecosystem services of the Baltic Sea are threatened by eutrophication, for example food production, biodiversity and aesthetic values. In the writers opinion thereby all economically reasonable actions are motivated from an ecosystem service perspective not to risk the possibility for future generations to fulfill their needs. The prohibition is further contributing to social sustainability by entailing an increased awareness of the problems related to the Baltic Sea's environmental status. The writers primarily recommend building of more toilets on land and more suction drainage devices. The placement of these should be reviewed by an actor with an overall responsibility. Spreading of information about where the emptying equipments are located is recommended, both by an application in the mobile phone and marked in the nautical chart. In addition, information about the rules that apply to recreational pleasure craft owners and port responsibles should also be spread, as well as clear user instructions on emptying equipments.

In the years after WWII the Baltic Sea Area developed into an area strongly divided between East and West. Because of the tensions between the blocs, the coastal areas where strongly militarized and prepared for war. The new political situation after 1989 propelled an international military disarmament and closing down of bases, training areas around Europe. Since the Baltic Sea Area was one of the heaviest militarized part of Europe the question of disarmament here is of particularly great economic, social and cultural importance. This study is about the post-military landscape in the Baltic Sea Area with examples from Dejevo on the Estonian island Saaremaa, Dranske on the (East)German island Rügen and Fårösund on the Swedish island Gotland. The aim of this thesis is to shed light on the process where the military landscape of the Cold War is transformed in order to be incorporated in the macro-regional endeavors for unity in the new Europe. I want to analyze the implications that planning visions have on the everyday life of people. A following aim is to shed light on the challenges that urban planning has to face in this transformation. Three research questions frame the study. The first question analyzes the process where the coastal areas of the Baltic Sea after the end of the Cold War are disarmed and transformed, from a landscape of production of military services and objects into a landscape of consumption for recreation and tourism. The second question takes its point of departure in the relation between planning visions and everyday life. The third question concerns the matter of the past and analyzes what aspects of the military landscape are emphasized respectively pushed aside in the transformation into post-military landscape. The study is based on interviews with inhabitants and local planners as well as macro-regional and local planning documents, articles and photographs.