Hydroxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers (OH-PBDEs) are naturally produced in aquatic ecosystems e.g. by algae. Many OH-PBDEs have been observed to be highly bioactive and to cause adverse effects through several pathways, e.g. via disrupting oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). The levels of some OH-PBDEs have increased in Baltic biota over the past decades. This may be associated with the nutrient enrichment of the Baltic Sea, which has favored growth of some of the OH-PBDE producers. Ceramium tenuicorne has been suggested to be a producer of OH-PBDEs in the Baltic Sea, which is supported by the results presented in this thesis. The levels of OH-PBDEs were observed to fluctuate greatly in C. tenuicorne over the summer season, and to correlate with the levels of pigments in the algae. However, the observed congener pattern in C. tenuicorne questioned theories regarding the mechanism of their biosynthesis. The results indicate a much more selective pathway for biosynthesis than previously suggested for the production of OH-PBDEs. One of the most abundant OH-PBDEs in C. tenuicorne, 6-OH-BDE137, has previously been observed to be toxic to bacteria, fungi, and crustaceans. Furthermore, Baltic gammarids seemed to change their feeding preferences towards less grazing on C. tenuicorne during the production peek of OH-PBDEs in the alga. This suggests that OH-PBDEs may serve as allelochemical defense agents for C. tenuicorne. The transport and fate of OH-PBDEs through a Baltic food chain was also studied, including C. tenuicorne, Gammarus spp., three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), and perch (Perca fluviatilis). A small portion of the OH-PBDEs were observed to be methylated in the alga, or by associated bacteria. The methylated OH-PBDEs biomagnified in the food chain up to perch, in which they were converted back to the OH-PBDEs via demethylation. The OH-PBDEs and their methylated counterparts were also partially debrominated in the food chain, which resulted in high concentration of 6-OH-BDE47 in the perch. This congener is the most toxic OH-PBDE with regards to OXPHOS disruption. Another biotransformation of OH-PBDEs was identified in Baltic Sea blue mussels (Mytilus edulis). High concentrations of OH-PBDEs were conjugated with lipophilic moieties, e.g. fatty acids. This increases the residence time of the OH-PBDEs in the mussels. Mussels have been suggested to conjugate steroids with fatty acids as a means to regulate hormone levels. The conjugation of OH-PBDEs to fatty acids may occur due to intrusion into this pathway. Methods were developed to include quantification of conjugated OH-PBDEs in the analysis of mussels. OH-PBDEs were also quantified in blood from Baltic Sea grey seals (Halichoerus grypus). Seals originating from the Baltic proper were observed to be more highly exposed to 6-OH-BDE47 than seals from the Gulf of Bothnia. However, the levels of OH-PBDEs were generally low. A major effort was invested into securing these results, including development of a new analytical method. Blood obtained from dead seals is a difficult matrix for quantification of OH-PBDEs, and previous attempts using an established method yielded unsatisfactory results. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

Despite their similar size, material resources, shared geopolitical conditions and common history, the three Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania have pursued remarkably different policies towards Russia in the 1994-2010 period. Complex patterns of differentiation are evident across issue areas and over time. Given the static structural similarities between the Baltic states, how can we explain their divergent policies towards Russia and the change in these policies over time? This puzzle informs the central research question of this study: Why did Estonian, Latvian, and Lithuanian foreign policies towards Russia diverge in the 1994 to 2010 period? This work analyses the foreign policy of the Baltic states using typologies based on two axes: cooperative/adversarial and pragmatic/principled. Relying primarily on the liberal approach to international relations, the theoretical framework identifies six independent variables: the left/right political orientation of the government, instrumental usage of principled policies, the ethnic factor, business interests, membership in the EU and NATO, and, finally, Moscow’s own policies. It suggests that these factors played causal roles in determining Baltic policy towards Russia. Three case studies on the oil and gas sectors, as well as historical tensions, provide the empirical evidence to trace and explain the differentiated pathways of Baltic foreign policies. The empirical analysis provides evidence to argue that due to domestic political differences Lithuania pursued the most adversarial and principled policy towards Russia. Estonia, by way of contrast, pursued cooperative and pragmatic policies regarding energy issues. On political questions, however, it maintained a principled and adversarial stance, though this was less pronounced that that of Lithuania. Finally, Latvia pursued moderately principled and relatively adversarial energy policies placing it in between Lithuania and Estonia. With regard to history, Estonia’s and particularly Latvia’s policies experienced a notable evolution from adversarial and principled to more cooperative and pragmatic policies. In sum, this work demonstrates that the typologies of Baltic policies differed across sectors and experienced both divergence and at times convergence in rhetoric if not policies.

Due to heavy nutrient load and adverse climate change the occurrence of toxic cyanobacterial blooms have significantly increased during the last decades. Nodularia spumigena is one of the dominant toxic cyanobacteria which produces massive and inherent blooms in brackish water body, the Baltic Sea, particularly in late summer. Nodularia spp. are known to produce nodularins (NOD) and a range of other bioactive peptides such as spumigins and nodulopeptins, all of which have unclear function. In a recent study, three new nodulopeptins with molecular weight of 899, 901 and 917 were characterised from N. spumigena KAC 66. In the present study, N. spumigena KAC 66 was fractionated by reversed phase flash chromatography and their toxicity was determined by their lethality to Daphnia pulex and D. magna along with inhibition of protein phosphatase 1 assay (PP1). All fractions showed lethality to Daphnids and inhibitory activity against PP1, the toxicity was due to additional compounds as NOD and nodulopeptin 901 were only detected in 7 fractions. Pure NOD was lethal to D. pulex and D. magna LC50= 8.4 μg/mL and 5.0 μg/mL, respectively. The newly characterised nodulopeptin 901 was also tested against D. magna (LC50=>100 μg/mL). NOD and nodulopeptin 901 inhibited PP1 with IC50 0.038 μg/mL and 25 μg/mL, respectively. In common with many studies, the maximum amount of NOD was retained within the cells during the seven week growth experiment. In contrast, as much as ~50% of nodulopeptin 901 was detected in the growth media throughout the duration of experiments. To gain further insight on the effects of environmental stress on growth and production of bioactive metabolites in N. spumigena KAC 66, a range of parameters were investigated which included; temperature, salinity, nitrate and phosphorus. In the present study it was investigated that extreme growth conditions have a considerable effect on biomass and toxin levels by N. spumigena KAC 66. The light intensity ranged from 17.35-17.47 μmol/s/m2, 22°C and 11-20 ‰ of salinity were the optimal growth conditions to obtain maximum biomasses, intra and extracellular peptide contents. At 6.5 mg/L nitrate the maximum growth, as indicated by Chl-a and maximum concentrations of intracellular NOD and nodulopeptin 901 were detected found in week 5 and 4, respectively. Temperature had the greatest effect on peptide production. Whilst growth was similar at 22°C, 25°C and 30°C, increase in temperature had a profound effect on NOD production in that an increase from 22°C to 25°C resulted in a 50% decrease in intracellular NOD levels. At 30°C little or no NOD was detected. In contrast, whilst concentrations of nodulopeptin 901 decreased with increasing temperature, they were still detected at consistent levels suggesting they play an important role. The results from phosphate experiment showed Chl-a, cell biomass and peptide production did not show clear dependency on availability of PO-3 4. This is the first study to evaluate the effects of selected environmental parameters on NOD/nodulopeptin 901 production which ultimately may be helpful to explain the distribution, control of natural blooms and toxin levels of N. spumigena in the Baltic Sea and as well as laboratory based experiments. In an attempt further exploit cyanobacterial diversity, 20 strains were isolated from the Dian Lake and 6 from the Dead Sea. The UPLC-PDA-MS analysis of isolates, Microcystis spp. from Dian Lake, China indicated the presence of several peptides namely MC-LR, cyanopeptolin A and aerucyclamides A-D. These new isolates will be examined for biological activity and chemical characterisation in future studies.

This study analyses the administrative and economic career of Francesco De Gratta (1613–1676) as Royal Postmaster, Royal Secretary, and trader within the postal and fiscal systems of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This investigation focuses mainly on his network and career strategies and is based on various sources from a number of European archives and libraries, mainly those situated in Italy, Poland and Germany. The study presents the family De Gratta and the familial social actions that Francesco used in order to root his children and family in the Polish-Lithuanian noble culture. Next, the analysis shows that the career of Francesco De Gratta was inextricably correlated with the establishment of the early modern royal postal system in Gdańsk (the city of Gdańsk fulfilled an important bridging role within the Poland-Lithuanian Commonwealth) as well as his close contacts with different Polish kings and queens. The career followed distinct stages, tying him ever closer with the Crown, the nobility as well as the merchants in Gdańsk. It all started with his position as Head Postmaster in Gdańsk, in 1654. In 1661, he became Postmaster General of Royal Prussia, Courland, Semigallia and Livonia. After these initial steps, Francesco immersed in creditor activities and close contacts with the Royal Prussian cities, royal authorities, and not the least different Polish mint masters. He also got involved in the potash trade with his later son-in-law Jan Wawrzyniec Wodzicki, first as his factor and later as a co-owner of Wodzicki’s company. The study finally traces his social and economic advancement by the analysis of Francesco De Gratta’s legacies and their importance for his heirs’ social status. The summary compares the career of Francesco De Gratta with that of other postmasters and mint masters of Italian origin in Poland-Lithuania. / Denna studie analyserar Francesco De Grattas (1613-1676) ekonomiska och administrativa karriär som kunglig postmästare, kunglig sekreterare och köpman i det polsk-litauiska samväldet. Denna undersökning är främst inriktad på nätverks- och karriärsanalys och bygger på olika arkivkällor från en rad europeiska arkiv och bibliotek, främst från Italien, Polen och Tyskland. Studien presenterar familjen De Gratta och de familjära sociala strategier som Francesco använde för att förankra sin familj i det polsk-litauiska samväldets adelskultur. Därefter visar analysen att De Grattas karriär kan förstås mot bakgrund av upprättandet av det tidigmoderna kungliga postsystemet i Gdańsk (Gdańsk hade en viktig överbryggande roll inom Polen-Litauen), liksom hans nära kontakter med olika polska kungar och drottningar. Hans karriär följde olika distinkta steg som möjliggjorde för honom att närma sig kronan, adeln och köpmännen i Gdańsk. År 1654 blev han huvudpostmästare i Gdańsk och 1661 fick han ämbetet som huvudpostmästare för Kungliga Preussen, Kurland, Semgallen och Livland. Senare utvecklade Francesco De Gratta sin kreditverksamhet parallellt med utbyggnaden av sitt kontaktnätverk med kungliga preussiska städer, kungliga myndigheter och inte minst olika polska myntmästare. Han blev också involverad i handel med pottaska (kaliumkarbonat) tillsammans med sin svärson Jan Wawrzyniec Wodzicki, först som hans agent och senare som delägare i Wodzickis företag. Slutligen spårar studien Francesco De Grattas sociala och ekonomiska framåtskridande genom en analys av hans arv och dess betydelse för hans arvingars sociala status. Sammanfattningsvis jämförs Francesco De Grattas karriär med andra postmästare och myntmästare av italienskt ursprung i Polen-Litauen. / Information Infrastructure in the Baltic Area. Nodes, News and News Agents, c. 1650 - 1700

The field of microbial ecology has just entered a new era of rapid technological development and generation of big data. The high-throughput sequencing techniques presently available provide an opportunity to extensively inventorize the blueprints of life. Now, millions of microbes of natural microbial communities can be studied simultaneously without prior cultivation. New species and new functions (genes) can be discovered just by mining sequencing data. However, there is still a tremendous number of microorganisms not yet examined, nor are the ecosystem functions these carry out. The modern genomic technologies can contribute to solve environmental problems and help us understand ecosystems, but to most efficiently do so, methods need to be continuously optimised.   During my Ph. D. studies, I developed a method to survey eukaryotic microbial diversity with a higher accuracy, and applied various sequencing-based approaches in an attempt to answer questions of importance in environmental research and ecology. In PAPER-I, we developed a set of 18S rRNA gene PCR primers with high taxonomic coverage, meeting the requirements of currently popular sequencing technologies and matching the richness of 18S rRNA reference sequences accumulated so far. In PAPER-II, we conducted the first sequencing-based spatial survey on the combined eukaryotic and bacterial planktonic community in the Baltic Sea to uncover the relationship of microbial diversity and environmental conditions. Here, the 18S primers designed in PAPER-I and a pair of broad-coverage 16S primers were employed to target the rRNA genes of protists and bacterioplankton for amplicon sequencing. In PAPER-III, we integrated metagenomic, metabarcoding, and metatranscriptomic data in an effort to scrutinise the protein synthesis potential (i.e., activity) of microbes in the sediment at a depth of 460 m in the Baltic Sea and, thus, disclosing microbial diversity and their possible ecological functions within such an extreme environment. Lastly, in PAPER-IV, we compared the performance of E. coli culturing, high-throughput sequencing, and portable real-time sequencing in tracking wastewater contamination in an urban stormwater system. From the aspects of cost, mobility and accuracy, we evaluated the usage of sequencing-based approaches in civil engineering, and for the first time, validated the real-time sequencing device in use within water quality monitoring.   In summary, these studies demonstrate how DNA sequencing of microbial communities can be applied in environmental monitoring and ecological research. / <p>Yue Hu was supported by a scholarship from the China Scholarship Council (CSC #201206950024)</p><p>Yue Hu has been publishing papers under the name "Yue O. O. Hu".</p><p>QC 20170403</p>

Que l’on se situe dans les Caraïbes, en mer Baltique ou en mer Méditerranée, bassins à la fois stratégiques, fragiles et inégaux, il reste crucial pour les Etats riverains d’y établir une surveillance des activités légales et illégales. Nous avons sélectionné ces bassins maritimes comme terrain d’analyse de notre recherche qui repose sur l’étude des grands projets européens dédiés à la surveillance maritime. Ce travail vise d’abord à proposer un état de l’art : il cherche à établir une synthèse des services proposés par les grands industriels travaillant sur les marchés civils et militaires et à évaluer dans quelle mesure il serait possible d’améliorer et de compléter les technologies existantes. Il a aussi pour objectif d’évaluer les informations recueillies via une image satellitale par l’établissement d’un historique des outils d’observation utilisés pour la surveillance maritime avec leurs caractéristiques, leurs avantages et inconvénients. / The Caribbean Sea, the Baltic Sea and the Mediterranean Sea are some of the most strategic maritime basins. In such sensitive, unequal and sometimes unstable regions, it is necessary for the coastal states to develop and/or enhance their maritime surveillance. We chose these regions as the center for our analysis. The research is based on the latest European maritime projects. First of all this study aims at creating a state of the art. The objective is to make a synthesis of the services provided by industries in both military and civil fields. We would like to estimate how it would be possible to improve and to complement the existing technologies. Secondly the aim is to estimate the value of the information and data extracted from a satellite image. We will answer this question by creating an historical account of observation tools used for maritime surveillance with their characteristics, advantages and drawbacks.

Small-scale fisheries are learning contexts of importance for generating, transferring, and updating ecological knowledge of natural environments through everyday work practices. The rich knowledge fishers have of local ecosystems is the result of the intimate relationship fishing communities have had with their natural environments across generations (see e.g. Urquhart and Acott 2013). This relationship develops strong emotional bonds to the physical and social place. For fishing communities and fishers – who depend directly on local ecosystems to maintain their livelihoods – fishing environments are natural places for living, working and defining themselves. Previous research on fishers’ ecological knowledge has mainly been descriptive, i.e., has focused on aspects such as reproduction, nutrition and spatial-temporal distribution and population dynamics, from a traditional view of knowledge that only recognises scientific knowledge as the true knowledge. By doing this, fishers’ ecological knowledge has been investigated separately from the learning contexts in which it is generated, ignoring the influence of social, cultural and historical aspects that characterise fishing communities, and the complex relationships between fishers and the natural environments they live and work in. This thesis investigates ecological knowledge among small-scale fishers living and working in the ecosystems of Lake Vättern and the Blekinge Archipelago (Baltic Sea) in Sweden and explores how ecological knowledge is generated with particular regard to the influences of work and nature on fishers’ knowledge of ecosystems. The aim of this thesis is to contribute to the knowledge and understanding of informal learning processes of ecosystem complexity among small-scale fishers. This knowledge further contributes to the research field of ecological knowledge and sustainable use and management of natural resources. It addresses the particular research questions of what ecological knowledge fishers generate, and how its generation is influenced by their fishing work practices and relationships to nature. The thesis consists of three articles. Article I focuses on the need to address the significant lack of theoretical and methodological frameworks for the investigation of the cognitive aspects involved in the generation of ecological knowledge. Article II deals with the need to develop theoretical, methodological and empirical frameworks that avoid romanticising and idealising users’ ecological knowledge in local (LEK), indigenous (IEK) and traditional (TEK) ecological knowledge research, by rethinking it as being generated through work practices. Article III addresses the lack of studies that explicitly explore theories linking complex relations and knowledge that humans form within and of ecosystems. It also addressed the lack of attention from environmental education researchers to theory and empirical studies of ‘sense of place’ research, with a particular focus on environmental learning. Research into the question of what ecological knowledge fishers generate shows differences in their ways of knowing ecosystem complexity. These differences are explained in terms of the influences of the species being fished, and the sociocultural contexts distinguishing fishers’ connection to the fishing profession (i.e., familial tradition or entrepreneurship) (Article I), but also by the fishing strategies used (Article II). Results answering the research question of how work practices influence fishers’ knowledge of ecosystem complexity show a way of rethinking their ecological knowledge as generated in a continuous process of work (Article II), thus, far from romantic views of knowledge. Results answering the research question of how fishers’ relationships to nature influence their knowledge of ecosystem complexity demonstrate the complex interconnections between psychological processes such as identity construction, proximity maintenance and attachment to natural environments (Article III). Finally, more similarities than differences between fishers’ knowledge were found, despite the variation in cases chosen, with regards to landscape, target species, regulations systems and management strategies, fishing environments scales, as well as cultural and social contexts. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: Manuscript.</p><p> </p> / Ecological knowledge and sustainable resource management: The role of knowledge acquisition in enhancing the adaptive capacity of co-management arrangements

Syftet med denna uppsats är att bidra till en bättre förståelse för LBG:s förutsättningar inom sjöfarten genom att kartlägga vilka möjligheter och hinder som finns för att använda LBG som bränsle i Östersjöområdet. Studien består av en analytisk kartläggning som baseras i en litteraturstudie och kompletteras av en intervjustudie med branschaktörer.  Uppsatsen använder en kombinerad PESTLE/SWOT-metodik, där en kartläggning har utförts med hjälp av en PESTLE-analys för att identifiera områden och faktorer. Faktorerna har därefter analyserats genom en SWOT-analys för att svara på rapportens formulerade huvudfrågeställning. Resultatet visar att potentialen för LBG inom sjöfartsbranschen är stor, särskilt då den huvudsakliga infrastrukturen för bränslet finns på plats med anledning av LNG:s framväxt i Östersjöområdet. Den volymmässiga avsättningspotentialen för bränslen är också stor inom sjöfarten, och LBG har unika styrkor jämfört med LNG och i sjöfarten redan etablerade bränslen. LBG:s styrkor ligger i linje med de målsättningar som finns kring omställning till förnybara bränslen i transportsektorn, samt de strategier och mål som finns om att reducera koldioxidutsläpp på global och europeisk nivå. Intervjuade rederier menar att de ser utvecklingen mot LBG som ett naturligt steg för sin LNG-drivna flotta och att testverksamhet pågår med inblandning av LBG i LNG-drivna fartyg. Tre faktorer identifierades som särskilda viktiga för utvecklingen mot LBG i sjöfartsbranschen i Östersjön. En av dessa berör produktionskapaciteten av LBG, där sjöfartsbranschens stora energibehov medför att endast en begränsad inblandning av LBG är möjlig i dagsläget. Ett annat identifierat fokusområde består i LBG-kostnad för sjöfarten, där den hårda konkurrenssituationen inom branschen negativt påverkar rederiers möjligheter att bekosta inblandning av LBG. Förutsättningarna påverkas också av att fartygsbränslen för kommersiell sjöfart är skattefria och att andra potentiella branscher för LBG medger möjlighet till skattemässiga subventioner. I uppsatsen skissas det på förslag för hur man kan avhjälpa dessa hinder och bättre utnyttja LBG:s styrkor som fartygsbränsle i Östersjöområdet. / The purpose of this paper is to contribute to a better understanding of LBG's conditions in the shipping sector by mapping out the opportunities and barriers of using LBG as fuel in the Baltic Sea area. The paper consists of a literature study that is supplemented by an interview study with industry players. The thesis uses a combined PESTLE / SWOT methodology, where a survey has been performed using a PESTLE analysis to identify areas and specific factors. The factors were then analyzed through a SWOT analysis to answer the main issue proposed by the author. The results show that there is considerable potential for LBG in the shipping industry, especially as the entire fuel infrastructure is in place due to LNG's continuous growth in the Baltic Sea area. LBG has unique strengths compared to both LNG and fuels that are already established in the maritime industry. LBG's strengths are in line with the aims of increasing renewable fuels in the transport sector, as well as the strategies and targets that exist to reduce carbon dioxide emissions at a global and European level. Interviewed shipping companies see the development towards LBG as a natural step for their LNG-operated fleet, and that testing is ongoing with mixing LBG in some LNG-fueled vessels. Three factors were identified as particularly important for the development of LBG in the Baltic Sea. One of these concerns the production capacity of LBG, where the large energy needs of the shipping industry mean that only a limited use of LBG is possible at present. Another identified focus area is costs in relation to LBG, where the tough competitive situation in the shipping industry negatively impacts shipping companies' ability to afford a more expensive fuel like LBG. The prerequisites are also affected by the fact that ship fuels for commercial shipping are tax-free and that other potential sectors for LBG allow for tax subsidies. The thesis outlines proposals for how to overcome these obstacles and make better use of LBG's strengths as a fuel for shipping in the Baltic Sea area.

Dans les récits de voyages des années 1800, la région de la mer Baltique est présentée commeun espace de découverte diversifié – c’est en quelque sorte un patchwork multicolore deconstructions imagologiques. Pourtant, la conception d’une région de la mer Baltique étaitdéjà fondée à l’époque de la «Sattelzeit» sur le besoin de pouvoir situer les riverains de la merBaltique comme une unité culturelle, quelque part dans le grand Nord. Dans l’imaginationdes voyageurs en 1800, la région de la mer Baltique est en fait déjà cet espace d’interactionset d’imbrications qui constitue la base évidente des approches modernes de la recherche.Bien sûr, il y avait les divers royaumes, provinces ou villes qui jouèrent un rôle pour lesvoyageurs. Cela ne signifie pourtant pas qu’il soit impossible de retrouver dans les récits devoyages certains points communs, manifestés sous forme d’un caractère «nordique»supérieur de ces riverains. C’est pourquoi ce caractère «nordique» est sans cesse exprimédans les récits de voyages à partir de divers niveaux de perception – dans la description de lanature, de la mer, du climat, mais aussi dans les perceptions des villes et les rencontresculturelles. Par conséquent, la littérature de voyage indique une tendance qui est égalementimportant pour la recherche historique actuelle: une évaluation de la région de la merBaltique comme un macro-région unique, qui accepte aussi les différences dans leursdifférents pays et régions. / This Franco-German analysis examines the Baltic Sea region as a center for cultural exchangebased on German and French travel reports from 1750 to 1815 in a comparative perspective.The objective is to examine the countries around the Baltic Sea as places of encounter fortravelers and to raise the awareness of historical travel research and research of culturalexchange for the subject ‘space’. This approach scrutinizes several forms of German andFrench imaginations of nature, sea shore and different forms of urbanity, but also theperception and reception of identities and alterities, the consolidation and the departure ofstereotypes as well as the possibilities and limits of cultural transfer processes by travelling.Furthermore, this approach allows to gain a deeper understanding of the progress of complexphenomena such as, ‘percipience', 'contemplation' and 'delineating' of foreign cultures in aperiod which was marked by a radical change in socio-political and cultural thinking.

This work deals with Latvian Song Festivals as an important phenomenon in Latvian history which started in Latvia in 1873. Their basis lays in choir singing developed in Latvia on a massive scale in 2nd half of 19th century. The festivals probably continued old tradition of singing - so-called teicamās dziesmas which had a similar structure as modern choirs. The development of choir singing is connected with Herrnhuterian schools and pedagogical colleges. The personality playing an important role in this process was a chief pedagogue in Valmiera Jānis Cimze whose collection Dziesmu rota launched a discussion about the future of Latvian culture from the point of view of national identity. Although the structure of Latvian Song Festivals was taken over from the Baltic Germans the idea of national identity has been involved since the beginning. Forming of Latvian national identity was in its beginnings influenced by J. G. Herder's philosophy and his idea of Volkslied and Volksgeist and it is closely connected with Latvian folk songs. It corresponds with Latvian self-determination as the nation of singers. In four historic periods defined by socio-political changes on Latvian territory these ideas together with a strong national element is found exactly in Latvian Song Festivals. The festivals become a...