A liberdade é tema de discussões há muito tempo na humanidade. Enquanto algumas filosofias defendem essa noção de forma estrita, outras questionam sua própria existência. Duas filosofias que discutem a liberdade humana de forma aparentemente antagônica são o anarquismo e o behaviorismo. O presente trabalho teve por objetivo analisar se os conceitos de liberdade apresentado na obra de dois autores representativos dessas filosofias (Bakunin e Skinner, respectivamente) são similares entre si. Seu objetivo básico foi responder à seguinte questão: quais são as compatibilidades e as incompatibilidades entre o anarquismo e o behaviorismo radical, propostos por esses autores, no que diz respeito à concepção de liberdade do ser humano? Como método geral, foram analisadas algumas obras desses autores, com destaque para aquelas em que a discussão do conceito de liberdade se sobressai. A análise foi centrada na abordagem dessas filosofias sobre a ciência, a educação e o Estado. Como resultado, identificou-se como semelhante o fato de que ambos os autores defenderam que a natureza humana não tem qualidades intrinsecamente boas ou más, morais ou imorais. Para Bakunin, é possível conceber uma conjuntura de sociedade/cultura capaz de gerar homens com características defendidas pelos anarquistas como próprias do homem livre tais como solidariedade, cooperação e respeito às diferenças entre os indivíduos. Embora utilizando linguagem diferente, esse homem livre descrito por Bakunin não difere do suposto por Skinner ao analisar que o ambiente (ou as contingências ambientais) é que seleciona os comportamentos do indivíduo. Portanto, para ambos, o indivíduo é formado no seu contato com o ambiente. Apesar de concordantes nesse aspecto, eles se diferenciam pela maior ou menor ênfase nas ferramentas propostas para promover mudanças no comportamento e para planejar culturas que se aproximem da ideal. Skinner fornece essas ferramentas com base nas proposições de uma ciência do comportamento, enquanto Bakunin apenas descreve características das relações interpessoais em uma sociedade que a levaria a produzir homens que ele chamaria de livres, sem deixar clara a forma pela qual se estabeleceria essa cultura. Portanto, conclui-se que, a despeito do antagonismo geralmente sugerido entre ambas as filosofias, a concepção de liberdade presente na obra de Bakunin não é incompatível com a proposta por Skinner. Sugere-se que um diálogo entre as duas filosofias pode ser profícuo, obtendo-se do anarquismo os objetivos para uma sociedade mais igualitária e justa e do behaviorismo, o caminho para atingi-los / Freedom is the subject of long discussions in humanity. While some philosophies argue that notion in a strict way, others question their own existence. Two philosophies that argue the human freedom so seemingly antithetical are the anarchism and behaviorism. This study aimed to analyze the concept of freedom presented in the work of two authors representing those philosophies (Bakunin and Skinner, respectively) are similar. Its basic purpose was to answer the question below: What are the compatibilities and incompatibilities between anarchism and radical behaviorism, proposed by these authors, with regard to the conception of human freedom? As a general method, were analyzed some of the works of these authors, especially those in which the concept of freedom was highlighted. The analysis was centered on the approach that these philosophies have on science, education and the state. As a result, it was identified as similar to the fact that both authors have argued that human nature is not intrinsically good or bad qualities, moral or immoral. For Bakunin, it is possible to conceive of a scenario of society/culture capable of generating men with characteristics defended by anarchists themselves of a free man such as solidarity, cooperation and respect for differences among individuals. Although using different language, this free man, described by Bakunin, does not differ from the assumed by Skinner to examine the environment (or environmental contingencies) that selects the behavior of the individual. Therefore, for both, the individual consists in his contact with the environment. Although consistent in this respect, they differ by a greater or lesser emphasis on the tools proposed to promote changes in behavior and make the planning of cultures that are close to the \"ideal\". Skinner provides these tools based on the propositions of a science of behavior, while Bakunin only describes characteristics of interpersonal relationships in a society that would produce men he would call \"free\" without making clear the way to establish this culture. Therefore, we conclude that, in spite of the generally suggested antagonism between the two philosophies, the concept of freedom present in the work of Bakunin is not incompatible with the one proposed by Skinner. It is suggested that a dialogue between the two philosophies can be fruitful, having regard to the goals of anarchism to a more egalitarian and just society, while from the behaviorism can derive the path to achieve them

Uma das principais características do Behaviorismo Radical de B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) é sua crítica sistemática às explicações mentalistas para o comportamento. Contudo, o próprio conceito de Mentalismo pode ter muitos sentidos. O objetivo do trabalho foi descrever o que Skinner definia por Mentalismo e que críticas fazia a ele no período de 1931-1959. Após a análise de alguns trabalhos de Skinner nesse período, observou-se que o Mentalismo criticado entre os anos 30 e 40 foi principalmente o presente na Fisiologia Conceitual e nos Behaviorismos de Tolman, Hull, Boring e Stevens. Do final dos anos 40 até 1959, a crítica era dirigida especialmente à Psicanálise de Freud e à Psicologia da Consciência. Em relação aos tipos de críticas feitas por Skinner, não foram observadas mudanças significativas na argumentação de Skinner. As objeções foram apoiadas principalmente na natureza não científica de tais explicações, em sua circularidade, no seu reducionismo, no seu efeito negativo de afastar o estudo do comportamento em si mesmo, impedindo dessa forma a identificação das causas reais da ação, atrasando assim a criação de uma tecnologia do comportamento capaz de ajudar na solução de problemas humanos. Discute-se também como o Antimentalismo seria a principal razão de existir do Behaviorismo Radical, que teria a responsabilidade de abrir espaço para uma Ciência do Comportamento que viesse a substituir a própria Psicologia. As possibilidades dessa missão ser bem sucedida também são avaliadas. / One of the main characteristics of B. F. Skinner's Radical Behaviorism (1904-1990) is his constant criticism against mentalistic explanations for behavior. However, the concept of Mentalism itself may have several different meanings. The purpose of this work is to describe what Skinner meant by Mentalism and what criticism he made against it between 1931 and 1959. After analyzing some of Skinners' works at that period, it was noticed that the Mentalism criticized between the 30's and 40's was the one that was found at Conceptual Physiology and at Tolman, Hull, Boring and Stevens' Behaviorism. From the late 40's to 1959, criticism was directed specially towards Freud's Psychoanalysis and to the Psychology of Consciousness. In relation to the type of criticism made by Skinner, no meaningful change in his argumentation was found. The objections were mainly supported by the non-scientific nature of such explanations, their circularity and reductionism, their negative effect of avoiding the study of behavior in itself, in this way, preventing the identification of the real causes of action, then delaying the creation of a behavioral technology capable of helping to find the solution to human problems. It was also discussed how Antimentalism would be the main reason for the existence of Radical Behaviorism which would be responsible for leading the way to a Science of Behavior that would replace Psychology itself. The possibilities of success of such endeavor will also be evaluated.

Nationwide concerns include disproportionate discipline referrals and suspensions of certain student groups and the associated negative student outcomes. The state's department of education cited a school district for suspending Black students with disabilities (SWD) at more than 3 times the rate of all other student groups; yet, the complex nature of the disciplinary disproportionality in this district was unknown. The purpose of this study was to investigate how student-related characteristics including race/ethnicity, gender, age, grade level, disability status, and school location, may predict number of discipline referrals, types of discipline referrals, and types of suspensions issued to students. Guided by the theory of behaviorism, this nonexperimental, ex post facto study examined archival discipline data for the 5523 students who received at least 1 office referral during the 2015-2016 school year. Chi-square analyses showed SWD had higher numbers of referrals, received referrals for subjective offenses, and were more likely to receive out-of-school suspension than no suspension or in-school suspension compared to nondisabled students. Regression analyses indicated students who were Black, male, identified as SWD, or in secondary school were at significantly greater risk of office referral and exclusionary discipline than other student groups. By understanding the patterns of discipline outcomes associated with student-related characteristics, school administrators within the local district are now able to select and implement evidence-based practices that may reduce exclusionary discipline, allowing all students to participate equally in school. Over time, these practices may lead to positive student outcomes including higher school engagement and increased graduation rates.

<p>Vi har i vår forskning belyst hur elever upplever arbetet med öppna respektive slutna frågor. Vi har framförallt tittat på hur arbetet med öppna och slutna frågor haft för inverkan på elevers möjligheter till perspektivbyte i tid och rum. Öppna frågor har i vår forskning varit lika med hög frihetsgrad medan slutna frågor är lika med låg eller ingen frihetsgrad. Vi har i vår forskning jämfört resultatet av en essäuppgift från två grupper med elever från årskurs 6. Dessa två grupper har innan uppgiften vägletts i temat ”En resa till Kina” i var sin experimentlektion. Den ena gruppen genomförde en lektion med uteslutande slutna frågor medan den andra gruppen utförde en lektion med uteslutande öppna frågor. En av oss agerade lärare medan övriga två observerade både lärare och elever under experimentlektionerna. För att vi skulle ha en sådan objektiv syn på resultatet som forskningen kräver så valde vi att anonymisera eleverna genom att ge dem nummer i stället för namn. Dessa nummer kunde efter bedömningen av uppgiften härledas till en lista med namn och nummer som deras mentor iordningställt. Vi har även använt oss av enkäter för att ta reda på hur eleverna upplevde arbetet med öppna respektive slutna frågor. Vi har genom vår forskning kommit fram till att elevers möjlighet till perspektivbyte i tid och rum underlättas med hjälp av frihetsgraden på de frågor som används i undervisningen. Vi har visat på att de frågor som har en viss till stor frihetsgrad är de frågor som legat till grund för perspektivbyte i elevernas essäskrivningar. Det är även dessa frågor från experimentlektionerna som eleverna i sina essäskrivningar visar att de minns. Resultatet av enkäten visar att eleverna ställer sig positiva till de arbetssätt som bedrevs under deras experimentlektioner.</p><p>We have in our research looked at how students experience work with open and closed questions. We have mainly looked at how work with open and closed questions affect student’s possibilities to change perspective in time and space. Open questions have in our research been equal to high freedom degree while closed questions is equal to low or none freedom degree. We have in our research compared the results of an essay task from two group’s with students from grade 6. These two groups had before the task been guided in the theme “A journey to China” in two separate experiment lessons. One group had a lesson with exclusively closed questions and the other group had a lesson with exclusively open questions. One of us acted as a teacher while the other two acted as observers, and observed both the teacher and the students during the experiment lesson. To be able to have an objective view of the result as the research demands we chose to anonymous the students and give them a number instead of names. These number could later on be deduced to a list with name and numbers that there mentor had set up. We have also used questionnaire to be able to see what the students thought of the work with open and closed questions. We have through our research been able to see that student’s possibilities to make a change in perspective in time and space make easy if the freedom degree of the questions used in their lessons. We have showed that the questions that have some or a great deal of freedom degree is the questions that are the foundation of the change of perspective in the students essay tasks. It’s also these questions from the experiment lessons that the students in their essay task show what they remembers. The result from the questionnaire shows that the students are positive to the work method that was carried out during their experiment lessons.</p>

Vi har i vår forskning belyst hur elever upplever arbetet med öppna respektive slutna frågor. Vi har framförallt tittat på hur arbetet med öppna och slutna frågor haft för inverkan på elevers möjligheter till perspektivbyte i tid och rum. Öppna frågor har i vår forskning varit lika med hög frihetsgrad medan slutna frågor är lika med låg eller ingen frihetsgrad. Vi har i vår forskning jämfört resultatet av en essäuppgift från två grupper med elever från årskurs 6. Dessa två grupper har innan uppgiften vägletts i temat ”En resa till Kina” i var sin experimentlektion. Den ena gruppen genomförde en lektion med uteslutande slutna frågor medan den andra gruppen utförde en lektion med uteslutande öppna frågor. En av oss agerade lärare medan övriga två observerade både lärare och elever under experimentlektionerna. För att vi skulle ha en sådan objektiv syn på resultatet som forskningen kräver så valde vi att anonymisera eleverna genom att ge dem nummer i stället för namn. Dessa nummer kunde efter bedömningen av uppgiften härledas till en lista med namn och nummer som deras mentor iordningställt. Vi har även använt oss av enkäter för att ta reda på hur eleverna upplevde arbetet med öppna respektive slutna frågor. Vi har genom vår forskning kommit fram till att elevers möjlighet till perspektivbyte i tid och rum underlättas med hjälp av frihetsgraden på de frågor som används i undervisningen. Vi har visat på att de frågor som har en viss till stor frihetsgrad är de frågor som legat till grund för perspektivbyte i elevernas essäskrivningar. Det är även dessa frågor från experimentlektionerna som eleverna i sina essäskrivningar visar att de minns. Resultatet av enkäten visar att eleverna ställer sig positiva till de arbetssätt som bedrevs under deras experimentlektioner. We have in our research looked at how students experience work with open and closed questions. We have mainly looked at how work with open and closed questions affect student’s possibilities to change perspective in time and space. Open questions have in our research been equal to high freedom degree while closed questions is equal to low or none freedom degree. We have in our research compared the results of an essay task from two group’s with students from grade 6. These two groups had before the task been guided in the theme “A journey to China” in two separate experiment lessons. One group had a lesson with exclusively closed questions and the other group had a lesson with exclusively open questions. One of us acted as a teacher while the other two acted as observers, and observed both the teacher and the students during the experiment lesson. To be able to have an objective view of the result as the research demands we chose to anonymous the students and give them a number instead of names. These number could later on be deduced to a list with name and numbers that there mentor had set up. We have also used questionnaire to be able to see what the students thought of the work with open and closed questions. We have through our research been able to see that student’s possibilities to make a change in perspective in time and space make easy if the freedom degree of the questions used in their lessons. We have showed that the questions that have some or a great deal of freedom degree is the questions that are the foundation of the change of perspective in the students essay tasks. It’s also these questions from the experiment lessons that the students in their essay task show what they remembers. The result from the questionnaire shows that the students are positive to the work method that was carried out during their experiment lessons.

The aim of this essay is to analyze two different educational paradigms, which I refer to broadly as the behavioristic way of learning through imitation versus intercultural education, as these are depicted in the novel Purple Hibiscus by the Nigerian writer Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie. The analysis focuses on how the narrator Kambili´s learning, identity and personal development are differently affected by these two contrastive approaches to education. After the analysis, examples of how the novel can be taught in intercultural, communicative EFL classrooms will be given. In the analysis theories of mimicry and imitation, and identity will be used as well as understandings of the terms intercultural education and behaviorism. The analysis shows that Kambili´s father Eugene represents behaviorism in the novel, whereas Kambili´s aunt Ifeoma symbolizes intercultural education. At home, Kambili learns to imitate her father´s behavior and values. In Ifeoma´s house on the other hand she encounters a kind of intercultural education, where critical thinking and questioning are encouraged. The thematization of contrastive educational and developmental paradigms in the novel is relevant to the comprehensive goals of Swedish upper secondary schools, which promote intercultural learning, as well as critical thinking and reflection on learning processes. Reading literature in the EFL classroom at this level may promote these broad educational objectives as well as the achievement of more specific, language- and culture-based learning outcomes. For many Swedish EFL students, Purple Hibiscus may represent difference, and therefore it is a suitable novel to include in intercultural education, as the students are encouraged tounderstand and reflect on different perspectives. By discussing the novel in groups, the education becomes intercultural because everyone becomes active participants and everyone´s voices are heard.

Uppsatsens huvudsakliga syfte är att utforska och kartlägga begreppet gamification. Syftet operationaliseras i tre frågeställningar. Vad finns det för likheter respektive skillnader i synen på Gamification mellan ett antal yrkesverksamma inom Gamification? Hur ser yrkesverksamma med olika bakgrunder inom psykologi, pedagogik och marknadsföring på framtiden för Gamification och dess användningsområde? Vilka för- och nackdelar kan finnas med Gamification? Uppsatsen teoretiska utgångspunkter omfattar de psykologiska krafterna bakom spel som flow och motivation, teorier om det praktiska användandet av gamification och teorier om Generation Y. För att samla empiri har kvalitativ metod använts i form av semistrukturerade explorativa intervjuer där yrkesverksamma inom gamification har intervjuats. Resultatet tyder på att även om de yrkesverksamma har olika användningsområden för gamification är ledord som feedback, motivation och engagemang återkommande hos samtliga informanter. Även om framtidsutsikterna aningen skiljer sig hos informanterna råder en konsensus över att appliceringen av spelmekanik i andra sammanhang än spel även har en plats i framtiden.

Unintentional harm due to healthcare is common, especially in the operating theatre. Previous research, aiming to reduce harm to patients in the operating theatre, has not examined the non-technical skills of anaesthetic assistants. The aim of this project was to identify the essential non-technical skills required by anaesthetic assistants for safe and effective practice, and to develop a behavioural marking system to assess these skills. A literature review identified three articles which described anaesthetic assistants' non-technical skills. An interview study with anaesthetic assistants (n=22) and anaesthetists (n=23) described the use of situation awareness, teamwork and task management more commonly than leadership or decision making. This was corroborated by a critical incident database review of the Australian Incident Monitoring System from 2002 to 2008. The material identified in the interview study was considered by focus groups of anaesthetic assistants (n=6,7,3,4) to generate headings. These themes were considered by anaesthetic assistant lecturers (n=6) in a Delphi questionnaire, and positive and negative behavioural markers proposed. The Anaesthetic Non-Technical Skills for Anaesthetic Practitioners (ANTS-AP) behavioural marker system was completed by a research panel. The prototype ANTS-AP system had three categories: 'situation awareness', 'communication and teamwork', and 'task management', each with three elements. The reliability, validity and usability of the ANTS-AP system were evaluated by anaesthetic assistants (n=48) observing videos of simulated theatre work at a 3.5 hour workshop. The system had good internal consistency, and was able to discriminate good, average and poor behaviours. The element 'coping with pressure' was removed due to its poor inter-rater reliability. Future work will assess the inter-rater reliability of the ANTS-AP system, when observers have the opportunity for calibration. This project has provided anaesthetic assistants a means of structuring observation and feedback for training and reflection with the goal of improving patient care.

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