This study examined the differences in achievement between groups exhibiting different cultural dimensions in a particular online instructional environment. Variables were measured concerning the relationship between instructional environments, cultural dimensions and online learner preference. The subjects of this study were a representative sample of groups of graduate students from different cultures. The instrument was composed of a treatment that was represented across two instructional environments. A web-based tool measured participant?s cultural dimension, recall, transfer of knowledge and learning preference. A 2 x 2 x 2 ANOVA analysis method was used to examine the effects of individualism and collectivism on learner preference and achievement (recall, transfer). Significance in transfer measures was found. This indicated deep understanding of materials for collectivist participants. Correlational analysis revealed significance between cultural dimension and learner preference for instructional methods. Findings were consistent with the body of literature on cross-cultural psychology. / Ph. D.

My thesis aims to unobscure the ideology of wasting through embodied storytelling, philosophical inquiry, and sociopolitical history. In particular, I take the trashcan as a material representation of an "edge of externalization" --a concept I explore throughout this thesis to describe the edges beyond which waste management networks, strategies, and failures become visible. These edges offer spaces to critically engage with the inevitabilities backed into a wasting ideology that necessitates the disconnection between nature/society. Therefore, these edges offer spaces to understand and transform the alienation of our human nature. The human relationship to waste and to the trashcans in our homes is a familiar story hidden by strategic pedagogies of obfuscation. This project seeks to replace dominant behaviorist pedagogies with an alternative "compost pedagogy," which emphasizes a process of becoming through the transformation of the trashcan. Through a reflexive and creative process, the thesis explores my personal experiences with waste in the hope that my stories will not only unobscure global systems of wasting, but that my stories of unlearning, mending, and reimagining wasting will resonate with many lived experiences. / Master of Science / The purpose of this thesis is to explore the role of the trashcan as a waste management technology within our homes and use stories about alternative experiences of waste and waste management to challenge the normative narratives surrounding waste. I use the trashcan as a spectacle to understand the history of how material disposability arose in the twentieth century and as a way to understand the systems of our world most informed by the practices of waste and wasting. Using the lens of pedagogy, I aim to unobscure the dominant and oppressive education and infrastructure surrounding wasting and propose an alternative form of pedagogy I identify throughout my thesis as the compost pedagogy.

Previous studies have reported that spontaneous startles occur most frequently in the quiet sleep states, and have posited an energy release model in which spontaneous startles occur to release energy which would otherwise wake the infant. An alternative suggestion is that startles serve a homeostatic function by increasing the activity of the infant during periods of low arousal. The purpose of the current study was to examine the function of spontaneous startles using the ongoing cardiac and respiratory activity as indices of arousal. Twenty-six newborn infants were assigned to two groups. The first group was exposed to auditory stimulation which previously had been shown to decrease heart rate and respiratory rate for the first half of the one hour observation period. To the extent that spontaneous startles are related to periods of low arousal, decreasing the ongoing activity via the auditory intervention was expected to increase the rate of startles. The second group received no auditory stimulation. The occurrence of spontaneous startles was preceded by periods of lower than average heart rate and decreasing respiratory rate. Startles were followed by periods of increasing heart rate and further decreasing respiratory rate. In addition, the auditory intervention group reliably showed both a lower heart rate and an increased number of startles while exposed to the auditory stimulation, while the nonintervention group showed comparable rates of startles and heart rates in both halves of the observation period. Further, regardless of group status, most infants had their higher rate of startles in the period in which they had their lower heart rate. Finding lower heart rate and decreasing respiratory rate preceding startles, and lower heart rate and increased number of startles when exposed to the auditory stimulation, suggests that spontaneous startles modulate periods of low arousal in newborn infants. / Ph. D.

Este trabalho diz respeito às três seguintes questões gerais (e que possuem certas inter-relações): (i) Qual seria o lugar do comportamento em uma análise plausível das categorias psicológicas ordinárias (tais como as emoções, os humores, as chamadas atitudes proposicionais, dentre outras)? (ii) O que é comportamento, isto é, quais são as condições que delimitam o que conta e o que não conta como tal? (iii) Seria ou não valiosa a adoção de conceitos psicológicos ordinários em análise do comportamento? Com respeito à questão (i), eu procuro: (i.1) clarificar o leque de categorias exatamente envolvidas nela, por meio da elaboração de uma taxonomia relativamente neutra dessas categorias; e (i.2) formular e apoiar uma forma de perspectiva comportamental como resposta, com base em algumas abordagens comportamentais anteriores, dentre outras. Com respeito à questão (ii), procuro: (ii.1) clarificar a noção de comportamento, elucidando suas diferentes acepções e, em especial, as fronteiras que delimitam o que conta como comportamento em uma acepção aqui relevante dela (a saber, comportamento como ocorrência de uma ação ou reação de um organismo), por meio de análise conceitual; e (ii.2) apontar dificuldades (conceituais) em várias definições de comportamento (naquela acepção específica) encontradas na literatura científica e filosófica. Com respeito à questão (iii), procuro: (iii.1) apresentar uma reconstituição semiformal de argumentos de Skinner (behaviorismo radical), Rachlin (behaviorismo teleológico) e Foxall (behaviorismo intencional) sobre ela, com base no modelo de solução de problemas de Laudan sobre a estrutura e a dinâmica de teorias; e (iii.2) oferecer um breve balanço crítico dessas três perspectivas nesse tocante, com base na abordagem que sugiro como resposta a (i). / This work deals with the following three (to some extent interrelated) questions: (i) What is the place of behavior in a plausible analysis of ordinary psychological categories (such as emotions, moods, so-called propositional attitudes, and so on)? (ii) What is behavior, that is, what are the conditions that distinguish behaviors from non-behaviors? (iii) Would it be useful enough to embrace ordinary psychological concepts in behavior analysis? Concerning question (i), I attempt (i.1) to clarify the range of categories pertaining thereto, by providing a relatively neutral taxonomy of these categories; and (i.2) to put forward and support a particular form of behavioral approach as an answer, by drawing upon some previous behavioral approaches, among others. Concerning question (ii), I attempt (ii.1) to clarify the concept of behavior, by distinguishing different senses thereof and elucidating, in particular, the boundaries of behavior qua occurrence of an organism\'s action or reaction; and (ii.2) to identify (conceptual) difficulties with some definitions of behavior (in that particular sense of the concept) found in the scientific and philosophical literature. Finally, concerning question (iii), I endeavor (iii.1) to present a semiformal reconstruction of arguments supported by Skinner (radical behaviorism), Rachlin (teleological behaviorism), and Foxall (intentional behaviorism), by taking advantage of Laudan\'s problem-solving model of the dynamic and structure of theories; and, based upon the approach outlined as an answer to (i), (iii.2) to provide a brief critical assessment of these three perspectives in this regard.

Este trabalho diz respeito às três seguintes questões gerais (e que possuem certas inter-relações): (i) Qual seria o lugar do comportamento em uma análise plausível das categorias psicológicas ordinárias (tais como as emoções, os humores, as chamadas atitudes proposicionais, dentre outras)? (ii) O que é comportamento, isto é, quais são as condições que delimitam o que conta e o que não conta como tal? (iii) Seria ou não valiosa a adoção de conceitos psicológicos ordinários em análise do comportamento? Com respeito à questão (i), eu procuro: (i.1) clarificar o leque de categorias exatamente envolvidas nela, por meio da elaboração de uma taxonomia relativamente neutra dessas categorias; e (i.2) formular e apoiar uma forma de perspectiva comportamental como resposta, com base em algumas abordagens comportamentais anteriores, dentre outras. Com respeito à questão (ii), procuro: (ii.1) clarificar a noção de comportamento, elucidando suas diferentes acepções e, em especial, as fronteiras que delimitam o que conta como comportamento em uma acepção aqui relevante dela (a saber, comportamento como ocorrência de uma ação ou reação de um organismo), por meio de análise conceitual; e (ii.2) apontar dificuldades (conceituais) em várias definições de comportamento (naquela acepção específica) encontradas na literatura científica e filosófica. Com respeito à questão (iii), procuro: (iii.1) apresentar uma reconstituição semiformal de argumentos de Skinner (behaviorismo radical), Rachlin (behaviorismo teleológico) e Foxall (behaviorismo intencional) sobre ela, com base no modelo de solução de problemas de Laudan sobre a estrutura e a dinâmica de teorias; e (iii.2) oferecer um breve balanço crítico dessas três perspectivas nesse tocante, com base na abordagem que sugiro como resposta a (i). / This work deals with the following three (to some extent interrelated) questions: (i) What is the place of behavior in a plausible analysis of ordinary psychological categories (such as emotions, moods, so-called propositional attitudes, and so on)? (ii) What is behavior, that is, what are the conditions that distinguish behaviors from non-behaviors? (iii) Would it be useful enough to embrace ordinary psychological concepts in behavior analysis? Concerning question (i), I attempt (i.1) to clarify the range of categories pertaining thereto, by providing a relatively neutral taxonomy of these categories; and (i.2) to put forward and support a particular form of behavioral approach as an answer, by drawing upon some previous behavioral approaches, among others. Concerning question (ii), I attempt (ii.1) to clarify the concept of behavior, by distinguishing different senses thereof and elucidating, in particular, the boundaries of behavior qua occurrence of an organism\'s action or reaction; and (ii.2) to identify (conceptual) difficulties with some definitions of behavior (in that particular sense of the concept) found in the scientific and philosophical literature. Finally, concerning question (iii), I endeavor (iii.1) to present a semiformal reconstruction of arguments supported by Skinner (radical behaviorism), Rachlin (teleological behaviorism), and Foxall (intentional behaviorism), by taking advantage of Laudan\'s problem-solving model of the dynamic and structure of theories; and, based upon the approach outlined as an answer to (i), (iii.2) to provide a brief critical assessment of these three perspectives in this regard.

Thesis (MSc (Psychology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / Treatment adherence is a great problem in low socio-economic communities of South Africa. The failure to adhere to medication instructions has a negative impact on the patient’s health, social interaction, and on the economy of a nation. The primary aim of this study was to test the Theory of Planned Behaviour. The second aim was to test whether the inclusion of social support of family and friends, as well as psychological factors, improves the Theory of Planned Behaviour’s ability to predict intensions to adhere to treatment instructions. The third aim was to test the relationship between the involved variables and self-reported behaviour, as well as biological indicator that report treatment adherence. There were 79 hypertension patients, 24 diabetic patients, and 14 patients with both hypertension and diabetics, which completed a battery of questionnaires in primary care clinics in and around Stellenbosch.

Depuis plus de quarante ans, une effervescence théorique est constatée au sein d’un courant actuel de la psychologie connu sous le nom d’« analyse du comportement » concernant les activités relatives au langage et à la cognition. Au vu de la persistance d’une absence de consensus dans ces domaines, ce travail propose une réflexion théorique et épistémologique sur les origines et évolutions de ce courant. Cet élargissement de la perspective permet de considérer les liens entre les principes premiers et les conceptualisations ultérieurement apparues. Ce travail propose alors de voir les difficultés de théorisation du langage et de la cognition en lien avec l’un des axiomes fondateurs : le refus d’inférer des entités internes sur le plan théorique. Il discute ensuite des conséquences d’une réintégration de telles inférences, eu égard à l’une des dimensions épistémologiques historiques de ce courant, celle du pragmatisme, ainsi que vis-à-vis d’une dimension plus éloignée de ses origines, celle du constructivisme. Il présente enfin plusieurs pistes thérapeutiques en tant que développements des conclusions épistémologiques et propose, dans ce cadre, de considérer la logique comme un instrument thérapeutique à part entière. / For more than forty years, a theoretical effervescence has been observed within a contemporary area in psychology, known as “behavior analysis”, regarding the objective of dealing with language and cognition. However, the different propositions explored so far haven’t managed to federate the researchers in the field. Because of the enduring character of this difficulty, the current work puts forward a theoretical and epistemological reflection about the origins and evolutions of this area. The point of view this work brings leads to consider this difficulty of dealing with language and cognition in relation to one of its founding axioms, namely: the refusal of theoretical inferences. It then discusses consequences to reinstate these inferences, regarding one of the historical epistemological dimensions of this area: pragmatism, as well as concerning a dimension more distant from its origins: constructivism. It finally presents several therapeutical tracks as developments of the epistemological conclusions and proposes, in this context, to consider logic as a therapeutic instrument in its own right.

Evolutionary psychology offers a framework for investigating the design of evolved information-processing mechanisms that motivate costly behaviors such as men's partner-directed violence. The current research investigated predictors of and individual differences in men's intimate- partner-directed violence from an evolutionary psychological perspective. The problem of paternity uncertainty is hypothesized to have selected for the emotion of male sexual jealousy, which in turn motivates men's nonviolent and violent mate-retention behaviors. Study 1 documented a hierarchy of behaviors initiated with men's suspicions of partner infidelity leading to men's engagement in frequent non-violent mate-retention behaviors, ending in men's partner-directed violence. Study 2 documented an interaction between men's personality traits and the context of perceived partner infidelity risk to predict men's perpetration of violence. Finally, Study 3 extended Studies 1 and 2 by building a causal cascade model that captures the hierarchy of adaptive behaviors in order of: (1) men's childhood experiences with their parents' parental effort, (2) men's adaptive life history strategies and behavioral self-regulation, (3) men's perceptions of partner infidelity risk, and (4) men's non-violent mate retention behaviors, conclusively predicting men's perpetration of violence in intimate relationships. / by Farnaz Kaighobadi. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2011. / Includes bibliography. / Electronic reproduction. Boca Raton, Fla., 2011. Mode of access: World Wide Web.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-28T20:58:06Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese Maria Ester Rodrigues.pdf: 5487797 bytes, checksum: 6226b019a944f53cb1559f0ad83529d3 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2005-07-04 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This research aims at analyzing the contribution of Radical Behaviorism on formation, taking into account thesis and dissertations from 1970 to 2002, which means the thirty-two years of existence of the Brazilian masters strictu sensus course. Due to the lack of records and descriptive studies concerning the analysis of behavior and education in Brazil, as well as the widespread misunderstandings of Behavior Analysis/ Radical Behaviorism (BA/RB) on courses and books devoted to formation, the present research is justified. There was an evaluation of 10.174 abstracts concerning thesis and dissertations presented to Brazilian Post-Graduation strictu sensu Programs, from a total of thirteen institutions where there was the chance to find these works on BA/RB. Observing this kind of work, 282 researches corresponding to 2.77% of published thesis and dissertations from the analyzed programs were found. Seventeen of them were specifically referred to formation (0.16%). From the 282 ones, 265 abstracts were read since they were focused on general education, and also some aspects as place, responsible institution for the research, advisors and institutions productivity. The seventeen researches remaining are specifically about formation, which were analyzed according to the categories built from suggestions supplied by, basically, three authors (Bijou, 1970; Zanotto, 1997 and Gioia, 2001), in agreement with Skinner s proposal. Besides analyzing the general features, aspects about philosophy, basic concepts and researches of behavior analysis were also highlighted as well as teaching itself. Among these results, we found out that authors justify their researches since there is a need to overcome this lack on formation regarding formation and educational role. The researches were carried out through an experimental and mixed outline, but the number of teachers and students involved in the study may be considered significant (nearly 85 teachers and 1.800 students), as a consequence of the small number of researches found along this thirty-two year period of analysis. The authors dedicated themselves mainly to the first years from the elementary school, followed by kinder garden/children s education and special education, but the works focused on second part from elementary school, high school and college courses were less significant. It is important to stand out that the most important content was teaching, especially the teacher's autonomy on planning and executing their teaching activities, regarding to whom he teaches also observing the students ' first repertory; what he teaches or the establishment of his goals; how he teaches regarding some of its subdivisions, as the correct and effective uses of supplements; promotion and maintenance of behavior generalization after its installation; respect to the student's pace, and individualization of teaching; observation and holding of records about the students' behavior; the ranking of contents and their difficulties on suggesting or using strategies and teaching procedures. The emphasis on how to teach as well as on teaching the teacher how to teach appears to be a great contribution from the analyzed researches, but this can not be regarded as a recipe . Other points are suggested from these results, as an important aspect to think about; they also need more attention from the behavior analysts. An example can be the philosophical/conceptual teaching aspects, knowledge conceptions, teaching-learning, among others. The results also suggest the need of historical studies questioning the relationship between BA/RB and technicism which was declared by Brazilian education literature, once this research present information that is opposite to this assertion (reduced utilization of educational technology). These answers also suggested that community should reflect on insertion of BA/RB practices on education and on a closer contact with teachers, in order to give proposals to overcome those misunderstandings regarding the approach and the rejection to BA/RB received in the educational class / O trabalho analisa a contribuição do Behaviorismo Radical para a formação de professores, a partir de teses e dissertações no período de 1970 a 2002, período inicial de 32 anos de existência da pós-graduação strictu sensu brasileira. Dada a relativa escassez de estudos históricos e descritivos acerca da produção em análise do comportamento e educação no Brasil e o desconhecimento geralmente acompanhado de equívocos generalizados sobre a Análise do Comportamento/Behaviorismo Radical (AC/BR) nos cursos e textos que se dedicam à formação de professores, justifica-se o estudo realizado. Foram verificados 10.174 títulos e resumos de trabalhos defendidos em programas de pós-graduação strictu sensu brasileiros, em 13 instituições em que havia possibilidade de localizar produção em AC/BR (de um total de 106 programas de pós-graduação em psicologia e em educação). Deste universo foram encontrados 282 trabalhos no total, correspondendo a 2,77% da produção de teses e dissertações nos programas analisados. Dos 282 trabalhos, foram lidos os resumos de 265 (voltados à educação em geral), neles focalizando alguns aspectos (local e instituição de defesa, orientadores e produtividade das instituições). Os dezessete trabalhos restantes foram voltados especificamente à formação de professores (0,16% do total). Estes foram analisados na íntegra, de acordo com categorias construídas a partir de sugestões fornecidas por, basicamente, três autores (BIJOU, 1970; ZANOTTO, 1997 e GIOIA, 2001), afinados com a proposta Skinneriana. Além de analisar as características gerais foram focalizados aspectos relativos à Filosofia, Conceitos básicos e Pesquisa da análise do comportamento, bem como ao Ensino propriamente dito. Dentre os resultados, encontramos que os autores justificam a realização dos trabalhos pela necessidade de superação de despreparo e ausência de formação específica dos professores no exercício de funções educacionais. Os trabalhos tiveram predominância de delineamento experimental e misto, sendo que o número de professores e alunos envolvidos nos estudos pode ser considerado reduzido (aproximadamente 85 professores e 1.800 alunos), como decorrência do pequeno número de trabalhos encontrados ao longo do período de 32 anos de análise. Os autores dedicaram-se predominantemente às séries iniciais do ensino fundamental, seguindo-se a educação básica/infantil e a educação especial, concentrando pouco interesse em ensino superior, médio e na segunda etapa do ensino fundamental. O conteúdo de maior destaque é o ensino propriamente dito, especialmente o papel autônomo do professor no planejamento e execução de planos de ensino, considerando para quem ensina a partir de avaliação do repertório inicial dos alunos, o quê ensina ou estabelecimento de objetivos e como ensina , especificamente algumas de suas subcategorias, como: utilização correta e efetiva de reforçadores; promoção e manutenção da generalização do comportamento após a instalação; respeito ao ritmo do aluno e individualização do ensino; observação e manutenção de registros sobre o comportamento dos alunos; gradação dos conteúdos e da dificuldade; propor e utilizar estratégias e procedimentos de ensino. A ênfase ao como ensinar e à necessidade do professor ser ensinado a ensinar aparece como grande contribuição dos trabalhos analisados, sem se confundir com fornecimento de receituário . A partir dos resultados sugere-se pontos que mereceriam ser alvo de reflexão e de maior atenção por parte dos analistas do comportamento, como o ensino de aspectos filosóficos/conceituais, concepções de conhecimento, de ensino-aprendizagem, entre outros. Os resultados sugerem, ainda, a necessidade de realização de estudos históricos questionando a relação entre AC/BR e tecnicismo , relação esta declarada pela literatura da educação brasileira, uma vez que há dados no presente trabalho que se contrapõem a esta asserção (baixa utilização de tecnologia educacional). Sugere-se, ainda, que a comunidade reflita sobre as práticas de inserção da AC/BR na educação e no contato com os professores, de modo a derivar propostas para superar os equívocos generalizados sobre a abordagem e a rejeição a priori com que a AC/BR é recebida no meio educacional

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-29T13:18:16Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Rodrigo Guimaraes.pdf: 1642845 bytes, checksum: 61609dfab09ab8f83ee2fd1178b4081a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2005-06-03 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This study attempted to analyze articles historically from national and international journals that discuss the relationship between radical behaviorism and determinism. Analyzing how authors have related determinism and radical behaviorism means to analyze the verbal behavior of the authors and its controlling variables. Specifically, this study analyze: the distribution of the articles that discuss the relations between radical behaviorism and determinism throughout the years; the journals that they were published; the authorship of the articles; the citation of Skinner s works in these articles; the kind of citation made and the definitions of determinism found in the articles. The verbal responses of the authors were compared to Skinner s verbal responses (as understood by the authors); historical analysis of the theme of this study was identified. The results show that there was a high rate of publication from the end of the 80 s to the beginning of this decade. The Behavior Analyst and Behaviorism and Philosophy were that journals that had more articles published about this theme. 141 different publications of Skinner were cited in the articles. The most common kind of citation was citing some part of Skinner s work directly. The most common definitions of determinism found were those that defined determinism as mechanism causal mode. The second most common definitions of determinism were those that defined determinism as selection by consequences. Seven different types of relations between radical behaviorism and determinism were found. Except for one established relation, all the others were considered determinist: 1) denial of determinism; 2) assertion of determinism (this relation refers to specific verbal responses that explicitly asserts that radical behaviorism is determinist in relation to verbal responses that deny determinism); 3) approximation of mechanistic modes; 4) dissociation from mechanistic modes; 5) dissociation from teleological causal modes; 6) approximation of causal modes that search for the causes of behavior in external environmental variables and 7) approximation of causal modes that consider different levels of determination (e.g. phylogenetic, ontogenetic and cultural). Dissociation from mechanistic models was the most common relation identified in the articles. Few articles made historical analysis. Most of the authors think they have the same position about this theme as did Skinner / Esta pesquisa teve por objetivo analisar historicamente, a partir de periódicos nacionais e estrangeiros, como diferentes autores têm abordado as relações entre behaviorismo radical e determinismo. Analisar como os autores relacionam behaviorismo radical e determinismo é, na verdade, analisar o comportamento verbal destes autores e suas variáveis de controle. Foram analisadas as relações estabelecidas entre behaviorismo radical e determinismo e algumas possíveis variáveis relacionadas a este comportamento Mais especificamente, este trabalho se propôs a analisar: a distribuição das publicações sobre o tema ao longo dos anos; fontes de publicação; autoria dos artigos; os trabalhos de Skinner referenciados e os tipos de referências feitas à estes trabalhos e as definições de determinismo encontradas nos artigos. As respostas verbais dos autores foram comparadas com respostas verbais de Skinner (como entendidas pelos autores) e buscou-se identificar os trabalhos que analisaram o tema a partir de uma perspectiva histórica. Os resultados mostram que houve um pico de publicações sobre o tema a partir do fim da década de 80 até o início da década atual. As fontes que mais publicaram sobre o tema foram os periódicos The Behavior Analyst e Behavior and Philosophy. 141 trabalhos diferentes de Skinner foram referenciados. O tipo de referência mais realizada pelos autores foi transcrição direta (tipo I) seguida pela referência que indica apenas a obra (tipo III). As definições mais comuns foram as que definiram determinismo como mecanicismo, seguidas por definições de determinismo como seleção por conseqüências. Foram encontrados sete tipos diferentes de relações estabelecidas entre behaviorismo radical e determinismo, exceto a primeira relação todas as outras expressam posições deterministas: 1) relações de negação do determinismo; 2) relações de afirmação do determinismo (estas relações referem-se a respostas verbais que explicitamente afirmam que o behaviorismo radical é determinista, em oposição direta a negação de tal relação); 3) aproximação do mecanicismo; 4) afastamento do mecanicismo; 5) afastamento de modelos causais teleológicos; 6) aproximação de modelos que buscam em variáveis ambientais externas ao organismo as causas do comportamento e 7) alinhamento do behaviorismo radical com um modelo de determinação que considera diferentes níveis de determinação. Relação de afastamento do behaviorismo radical de modelos causais mecanicistas foi a mais identificada. Poucos trabalhos realizaram análises históricas sobre o tema. A maioria dos autores julga ter a mesma posição que Skinner sobre o tema