Contexte: Les facteurs de risque comportementaux, notamment l’inactivité physique, le comportement sédentaire, le tabagisme, la consommation d’alcool et le surpoids sont les principales causes modifiables de maladies chroniques telles que le cancer, les maladies cardiovasculaires et le diabète. Ces facteurs de risque se manifestent également de façon concomitante chez l’individu et entraînent des risques accrus de morbidité et de mortalité. Bien que les facteurs de risque comportementaux aient été largement étudiés, la distribution, les patrons d’agrégation et les déterminants de multiples facteurs de risque comportementaux sont peu connus, surtout chez les enfants et les adolescents. Objectifs: Cette thèse vise 1) à décrire la prévalence et les patrons d’agrégation de multiples facteurs de risque comportementaux des maladies chroniques chez les enfants et adolescents canadiens; 2) à explorer les corrélats individuels, sociaux et scolaires de multiples facteurs de risque comportementaux chez les enfants et adolescents canadiens; et 3) à évaluer, selon le modèle conceptuel de l’étude, l’influence longitudinale d’un ensemble de variables distales (c’est-à-dire des variables situées à une distance intermédiaire des comportements à risque) de type individuel (estime de soi, sentiment de réussite), social (relations sociales, comportements des parents/pairs) et scolaire (engagement collectif à la réussite, compréhension des règles), ainsi que de variables ultimes (c’est-à-dire des variables situées à une distance éloignée des comportements à risque) de type individuel (traits de personnalité, caractéristiques démographiques), social (caractéristiques socio-économiques des parents) et scolaire (type d’école, environnement favorable, climat disciplinaire) sur le taux d’occurrence de multiples facteurs de risque comportementaux chez les enfants et adolescents canadiens. Méthodes: Des données transversales (n = 4724) à partir du cycle 4 (2000-2001) de l’Enquête longitudinale nationale sur les enfants et les jeunes (ELNEJ) ont été utilisées pour décrire la prévalence et les patrons d’agrégation de multiples facteurs de risque comportementaux chez les jeunes canadiens âgés de 10-17 ans. L’agrégation des facteurs de risque a été examinée en utilisant une méthode du ratio de cas observés sur les cas attendus. La régression logistique ordinale a été utilisée pour explorer les corrélats de multiples facteurs de risque comportementaux dans un échantillon transversal (n = 1747) de jeunes canadiens âgés de 10-15 ans du cycle 4 (2000-2001) de l’ELNEJ. Des données prospectives (n = 1135) à partir des cycle 4 (2000-2001), cycle 5 (2002-2003) et cycle 6 (2004-2005) de l’ELNEJ ont été utilisées pour évaluer l’influence longitudinale des variables distales et ultimes (tel que décrit ci-haut dans les objectifs) sur le taux d’occurrence de multiples facteurs de risque comportementaux chez les jeunes canadiens âgés de 10-15 ans; cette analyse a été effectuée à l’aide des modèles de Poisson longitudinaux. Résultats: Soixante-cinq pour cent des jeunes canadiens ont rapporté avoir deux ou plus de facteurs de risque comportementaux, comparativement à seulement 10% des jeunes avec aucun facteur de risque. Les facteurs de risque comportementaux se sont agrégés en de multiples combinaisons. Plus précisément, l’occurrence simultanée des cinq facteurs de risque était 120% plus élevée chez les garçons (ratio observé/attendu (O/E) = 2.20, intervalle de confiance (IC) 95%: 1.31-3.09) et 94% plus élevée chez les filles (ratio O/E = 1.94, IC 95%: 1.24-2.64) qu’attendu. L’âge (rapport de cotes (RC) = 1.95, IC 95%: 1.21-3.13), ayant un parent fumeur (RC = 1.49, IC 95%: 1.09-2.03), ayant rapporté que la majorité/tous de ses pairs consommaient du tabac (RC = 7.31, IC 95%: 4.00-13.35) ou buvaient de l’alcool (RC = 3.77, IC 95%: 2.18-6.53), et vivant dans une famille monoparentale (RC = 1.94, IC 95%: 1.31-2.88) ont été positivement associés aux multiples comportements à risque. Les jeunes ayant une forte estime de soi (RC = 0.92, IC 95%: 0.85-0.99) ainsi que les jeunes dont un des parents avait un niveau d’éducation postsecondaire (RC = 0.58, IC 95%: 0.41-0.82) étaient moins susceptibles d’avoir de multiples facteurs de risque comportementaux. Enfin, les variables de type social distal (tabagisme des parents et des pairs, consommation d’alcool par les pairs) (Log du rapport de vraisemblance (LLR) = 187.86, degrés de liberté = 8, P < 0,001) et individuel distal (estime de soi) (LLR = 76.94, degrés de liberté = 4, P < 0,001) ont significativement influencé le taux d’occurrence de multiples facteurs de risque comportementaux. Les variables de type individuel ultime (âge, sexe, anxiété) et social ultime (niveau d’éducation du parent, revenu du ménage, structure de la famille) ont eu une influence moins prononcée sur le taux de cooccurrence des facteurs de risque comportementaux chez les jeunes. Conclusion: Les résultats suggèrent que les interventions de santé publique devraient principalement cibler les déterminants de type individuel distal (tel que l’estime de soi) ainsi que social distal (tels que le tabagisme des parents et des pairs et la consommation d’alcool par les pairs) pour prévenir et/ou réduire l’occurrence de multiples facteurs de risque comportementaux chez les enfants et les adolescents. Cependant, puisque les variables de type distal (telles que les caractéristiques psychosociales des jeunes et comportements des parents/pairs) peuvent être influencées par des variables de type ultime (telles que les caractéristiques démographiques et socioéconomiques), les programmes et politiques de prévention devraient également viser à améliorer les conditions socioéconomiques des jeunes, particulièrement celles des enfants et des adolescents des familles les plus démunies. / Background: Behavioural risk factors including physical inactivity, sedentary behaviour, cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking, and being overweight are major modifiable causes of chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases and diabetes. These lifestyle risk factors also co-occur in individuals and lead to increased risks of chronic diseases morbidity and mortality. Although single behavioural risk factors have been extensively studied, little is known about the distribution, clustering patterns and potential determinants of multiple behavioural risk factors for chronic diseases, particularly in children and adolescents. Objectives: This thesis aims 1) to describe the prevalence and clustering patterns of multiple chronic disease behavioural risk factors in Canadian children and adolescents; 2) to explore potential individual, social and school correlates of multiple chronic disease behavioural risk factors in Canadian children and adolescents; and 3) to assess, based on the conceptual framework of this study, the longitudinal influence of selected individual (sense of self, sense of achievement), social (social relations, others’ behaviours) and school (collective commitment to success, comprehension of rules) distal variables (variables situated at an intermediate distance from behaviours), as well as selected individual (demographics and personality traits), social (parental socioeconomic characteristics) and school (type of school, supportive environment, disciplinary climate) ultimate variables (variables situated at an utmost distance from behaviours) on the rate of occurrence of multiple chronic disease behavioural risk factors in Canadian children and adolescents. Methods: Cross-sectional data (n = 4724) from Cycle 4 (2000-2001) of the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY) were used to describe the prevalence and clustering patterns of multiple behavioural risk factors in Canadian youth aged 10-17 years. Clustering was assessed using an observed to expected ratio method. Ordinal logistic regression was used to explore correlates of multiple behavioural risk factors in a cross-sectional sample (n = 1747) of Canadian youth aged 10-15 years from Cycle 4 (2000-2001) of the NLSCY. Prospective data (n = 1135) from Cycle 4 (2000-2001), Cycle 5 (2002-2003) and Cycle 6 (2004-2005) of the NLSCY were used to assess the longitudinal influence of selected distal and ultimate variables (as described above in the objectives) on the rate of occurrence of multiple behavioural risk factors in Canadian youth aged 10-15 years; this analysis was performed using longitudinal Poisson models. Results: Sixty-five percent of Canadian youth had two or more behavioural risk factors compared to only 10% with no risk factor. Behavioural risk factors clustered in multiple combinations. Specifically, the simultaneous occurrence of all five risk factors was 120% greater in males (observed/expected (O/E) ratio = 2.20, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.31-3.09) and 94% greater in females (O/E ratio = 1.94, 95% CI: 1.24-2.64) than expected by chance. Older age (odds ratio (OR) = 1.95, 95% CI: 1.21-3.13), caregiver smoking (OR = 1.49, 95% CI: 1.09-2.03), reporting that most/all of one’s peers smoked (OR = 7.31, 95% CI: 4.00-13.35) or drank alcohol (OR = 3.77, 95% CI: 2.18-6.53), and living in a lone-parent family (OR = 1.94, 95% CI: 1.31-2.88) increased the likelihood of having multiple health risk behaviours. Youth with high self-esteem (OR = 0.92, 95% CI: 0.85-0.99) and youth from families with post-secondary education (OR = 0.58, 95% CI: 0.41-0.82) were less likely to have a higher number of behavioural risk factors. Finally, social distal variables (caregiver smoking, peer smoking, peer drinking) (Log-likelihood ratio (LLR) = 187.86, degrees of freedom = 8, P < 0.001) and individual distal variables (such as self-esteem) (LLR = 76.94, degrees of freedom = 4, P < 0.001) significantly influenced the rate of occurrence of multiple behavioural risk factors. Individual ultimate variables (age, sex, anxiety) and social ultimate variables (parental education, household income, family structure) exerted a less pronounced influence on the rate of co-occurrence of behavioural risk factors among youth. Conclusion: The results suggest that public health interventions should primarily target the individual distal (such as self-esteem) and social distal variables (such as parental smoking, peer smoking and peer drinking) to reduce or prevent the occurrence of multiple behavioural risk factors among youth. However, since distal variables (such as psychosocial characteristics and others’ behaviours) may be influenced by ultimate variables (such as demographic and socioeconomic characteristics), prevention programs and policies should also aim to improve the socioeconomic conditions of children and adolescents, particularly those of youth from less affluent families.

When residential segregation is mentioned in news coverage and when it is talked about in everyday discourse in Sweden, it is very often associated with immigration and minority groups living in the poorer areas of the city. A common assumption is that “immigrants” actively withdraw from society and that they choose to live together rather than integrating with the majority population. This study, however, argues that discussions about segregation cannot be limited to the areas where minorities and poorer-income groups live, but must understand segregation as a process occurring in the whole system of urban neighbourhoods. In order to reach a more complete understanding of the ways in which segregation processes are at work in contemporary Swedish cities, knowledge is needed about the inhabitants with greater resources and power to choose their dwellings and residential areas. The neighbourhood choices of more privileged groups, and the socio-spatial reproduction of the areas of the upper-middle class, are investigated by applying a qualitative ethnographic framework. The thesis studies two neighbourhoods located in the post-industrial city of Malmö: Victoria Park, a US-inspired “lifestyle community” which is the first of its kind in Sweden, and Bellevue, older but still one of the most exclusive and high-status neighbourhoods in the city. In order to understand self-segregation among privileged groups, the study especially scrutinises the concepts of class and security as well as the impacts of neoliberalisation on the Swedish housing market. The main argument of the study is that the self-segregation by members of the upper-middle class demonstrates a rift which runs through the urban fabric of Malmö, splintering the city up into perceived separate worlds. The existence of physical, symbolic and social boundaries in Victoria Park and Bellevue reproduces these neighbourhoods as exclusive, private and tranquil spaces of the upper-middle class. By locating themselves in the calm and safe part of the city, the upper-middle class can buy security as a commodity, rather than relying on the welfare state to provide it for them.

Child maltreatment is not a new issue. It has existed in various forms in every society since the early days in history. However, it is only in the past four decades that abuse and neglect of children has attracted widespread interest among health professionals and the general public. There is now a large body of evidence that identifies four main maltreatment forms: physical, sexual, emotional maltreatment and neglect. Child maltreatment is a substantial public health problem, as it is associated with immediate and long-term health problems. Most research into child maltreatment has been conducted in English-speaking, developed countries. Although there has been a small but steady increase in the number of studies from less developed countries over the past decade, there remains a relative dearth of research in these populations, especially in Asia. Over the years, most research projects around the world tend to be focused on only one type of child maltreatment (usually either child sexual abuse or child physical maltreatment), and many studies do not examine risk factors in depth, or address the possible outcomes of various forms of maltreatment. Children have always held a very important place in the culture and traditions in Vietnam. In 1989, Vietnam was the first Asian country and the second country in the world to sign and ratify the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Since then Vietnam has adopted various measures to promote children's rights and particularly children's rights to be protected from abuse and exploitation. Despite strong political support for the rights of children, there is little formal research into child maltreatment. From the small amount of available evidence and media reports, it appears that children in Vietnam are vulnerable to maltreatment, just as they are all over the world. It is clear that information about the extent and health consequences of different forms of child maltreatment from scientifically sound studies is still far from sufficient. Thus, more research is essential to ensure effective and culturally appropriate responses to protect children from maltreatment. The primary aim of this research was to examine the nature and co-occurrence of four forms of child maltreatment including sexual, physical, emotional maltreatment and neglect among Vietnamese secondary and high school adolescents in both urban and rural settings, and determine the extent to which such adverse experiences impact on self-reported health risk behaviours and physical and mental health. A mixed methods design including qualitative interviews and focus group discussions, and a cross-sectional survey was employed in this study. Incorporation of qualitative inquiry added a cultural dimension on child maltreatment and informed to develop appropriate quantitative measures. Following 8 focus group discussions and 16 in-depth interviews as well as a pilot study of 299 adolescents in Vietnamese schools, a cross-sectional survey of 2,591 adolescents randomly selected from eight secondary and high schools in one urban district and one rural district was undertaken between 2004 and 2005. Data were collected by self-administered questionnaires in class rooms. Key information included demographics, family characteristics and environment, and four scales measuring sexual abuse, emotional and physical maltreatment and neglect as well as standard brief assessments of health related risk behaviours, mental and general physical health. The study clearly revealed that experiences of different forms and co-occurrence of child maltreatment among school adolescents were prevalent in Vietnam. The prevalence estimates of at least one type of physical and emotional maltreatment, neglect and sexual abuse were 47.5%, 39.5%, 29.3% and 19.7% respectively. A significant proportion of respondents (41.6%) was exposed to more than one form of child maltreatment, of which 14.5% and 6.3% experienced three or four maltreatment forms. Results from multivariate logistic regression analyses showed that the prevalence of child physical and emotional maltreatment and neglect among adolescents was not statistically different between urban and rural districts. However, children from rural schools were more likely to report unwanted sexual experiences than their counterparts in urban schools. There was no significant gender difference in reports of adverse sexual experiences. In contrast, girls were more likely to report emotional maltreatment and neglect whereas boys were more likely to experience physical maltreatment. Furthermore, family environment assessed by parental quarrelling, fighting, perceived quality of parental relationship and emotional support appeared to be the most consistent factors significantly predicting each form of child maltreatment. After controlling for a wide range of potential confounding factors, many significant correlates between each type of maltreatment, each level of maltreatment co-occurrence and each health risk behaviour were found. In general, the pattern of correlations between child maltreatment and health risk behaviours was similar for females and males. Emotional maltreatment significantly correlated with most behaviours examined. Physical maltreatment seems more likely to be associated with involvement in physical fights and being threatened. Sexual abuse was significantly related to smoking, drinking, being drunk, and involvement in fighting. Statistically significant associations between neglect and self-harm such as involvement in fighting, feeling sad and hopeless, suicidal thoughts and attempts were found. Clearly, co-occurrence of child maltreatment was significantly associated with almost all examined health risk behaviours and a dose-response relationship was observed in most of the dependent variables. Regarding continuous measures of mental and physical health, multivariate regression analyses revealed that presence of four types of child maltreatment explained a small but significant proportion of variance (from 5% to 9%), controlling for a wide range of background variables. Additionally, while each form of child maltreatment had independent effects on depression, anxiety problems, low self-esteem and poor physical health emotional maltreatment appeared to be the strongest influence on mental and physical health of both female and male adolescents. Analysis of variance also clearly suggested that exposure to increasing numbers of maltreatment forms significantly increased the risk of mental and physical health problems in a dose-response fashion. The present study extends a small body of previous research examining poly-victimization in developed nations to an Asian country. The data contribute new knowledge on cross-cultural child maltreatment problems. Considerable commonalities as well as some differences in the findings in Vietnam compared with earlier research were found. One important conclusion concerns the significant independent associations between various types of child maltreatment, as well as the cumulative effects of poly-victimization on a wide range of health risk behaviours, depression, anxiety, self-esteem, and general physical health. This pioneering research in Vietnam provides timely and substantial evidence that can be used to raise public awareness of the nature of child maltreatment and the harmful effects of not only sexual and physical abuse but also other forms of emotional maltreatment and neglect which have not received attention before. These results from a community-based sample have demonstrated the urgent need for prevention programs. The current study provides an impetus for more comprehensive research in this sensitive area in the near future so that culturally and politically relevant evidence-based responses to child maltreatment can be developed in Vietnam.

Thesis (MCom)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa has a population of just over 50 million people. However, there are only approximately 260 698 nurses according to the register of the South African Nursing Council. The nursing shortage is not only limited to South Africa, but is a global phenomenon, and this shortage is getting worse every day. Various factors can be blamed for the increasing nursing shortage. Every day nurses face demanding working hours, stressful work environments and a large shortage of resources. Nurses from private hospitals regard themselves as "overworked money-making machines". Nevertheless, the health care needed by the population of South Africa is rapidly increasing. The high prevalence of HIV/AIDS is also a challenging contributor, worsening the nursing shortage crisis. The current dysfunctional nursing situation in the healthcare facilities of South Africa reflects a negative image of the nursing profession. Consequently, the number of individuals considering nursing as a profession is decreasing. The nursing shortage is not only a threat to the wellbeing of nurses, but to the lives of millions of South Africans who need health care. A common phenomenon amongst nurses is burnout, which leads to decreased quality of care and high turnover rates and contributes to the nursing shortage. Also, other nurses experience work engagement and display organisational citizenship behaviour in the same working environments than the nurses who experience burnout. Work engagement (WE) and organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) are ideal outcomes. This study investigated distinguishing factors between nurses that allow them to experience WE and exhibit OCB. The Job Demands-Resources model played an integral role in the study. Therefore, the specific focus of the study was job and personal resources, as well as job demands, as factors contributing to WE and OCB amongst nurses. Servant leadership (SL) as job resource, psychological capital (PsyCap) as personal resource, and IT (Illegitimate tasks) as job demand were identified as possible factors that explain the variance in WE and OCB. A literature review was conducted in which prominent antecedents of WE and OCB were identified. A number of hypotheses were formulated and tested by means of an ex post facto correlation design. The unit of analysis was nurses from two of the largest private hospital groups in South Africa. The nurses were employed at one hospital in Gauteng and three hospitals in the Western Cape. Data was collected from 208 nurses located within the chosen hospitals. Data collection on all five variables, namely work engagement, organisational citizenship behaviour, servant leadership, psychological capital and IT, was conducted by means of self-administered questionnaires. The measurements included in the self-administered questionnaire were selected in terms of their validity and reliability. The following measurements were included; Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES), Organisational Citizenship Checklist (OCB-C), Servant Leadership Questionnaire (SLQ), Psychological Capital Questionnaire (PCQ) and the Bern Illegitimate Task Scale (BITS). The data collected was analysed by means of item analyses and structural equation modelling. A PLS path analysis was conducted to determine the model fit. The most significant findings were that SL, as a job resource, and PsyCap, as a personal resource, were positively related to WE amongst nurses. The results also revealed that PsyCap was positively related to OCB. Lastly, it was found that IT, as a job demand, are negatively related to WE amongst nurses. These results support the assumptions of the JD-R model that specific job and personal resources lead to WE. The results provide guidelines regarding practical managerial implications and strategies to address the challenges experienced by nurses. The results, together with the managerial implications, made it possible to provide valuable insights and recommendations for industrial psychologists, as well as for further studies. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika het ‘n bevolking van net oor die 50 miljoen mense. Daar is egter volgens die register van die Suid-Afrikaanse Verpleegkunderaad net omtrent 260 698 verpleërs. Die tekort aan verpleërs is nie net tot Suid-Afrika beperk nie, maar is ‘n globale fenomeen, en die tekort word elke dag groter. Verskeie faktore kan vir die toenemende verpleërtekort blameer word. Verpleërs word elke dag gekonfronteer met veeleisende werksure, stresvolle werksomstandighede en ‘n groot tekort aan hulpbronne. Verpleërs by privaat hospitale beskou hulleself as “oorwerkte geldmaakmasjiene”. Nietemin neem die gesondheidsorg wat deur die Suid-Afrikaanse bevolking benodig word, vinnig toe. Die hoë voorkoms van MIV/VIGS is ook ‘n uitdagende bydraer wat die verpleërtekort vererger. Die huidige wanfunksionele verpleegtoestand in die gesondheidsorgfasiliteite van Suid-Afrika word weerspieël in die negatiewe beeld van die verpleegberoep. Gevolglik verminder die getal mense wat verpleging as ‘n beroep oorweeg. Die verpleërtekort bedreig nie net die welstand van verpleërs nie, maar ook die lewens van miljoene Suid-Afrikaners wat gesondheidsorg benodig. ‘n Algemene verskynsel onder verpleërs is uitbranding (burnout), wat lei tot ‘n afname in die kwaliteit van sorg en hoë omsetkoerse en bydra tot die verpleërtekort. Ander verpleërs ervaar egter werksbetrokkenheid (work engagement) en vertoon organisatoriese burgerskapsgedrag (organisational citizenship behaviour) in dieselfde omgewing waar verpleërs uitbranding ervaar. Werksbetrokkenheid en organisatoriese burgerskapsgedrag is ideale uitkomstes. Hierdie studie het onderskeidende faktore onder verpleërs ondersoek wat hulle toelaat om werksbetrokkenheid te ervaar en organisatoriese burgerskapsgedrag te vertoon. Die model van werkseise en hulpbronne (Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model) het ‘n integrale rol in die studie gespeel. Die spesifieke fokus van die studie was dus op werks- en persoonlike hulpbronne, sowel as werkseise, as faktore wat bydra tot werksbetrokkenheid en organisatoriese burgerskapsgedrag onder verpleërs. Dienaarleierskap en sielkundige kapitaal as werkshulpbronne, en illegitieme take as werkseis, is geïdentifiseer as moontlike faktore wat die verskil in betrokkenheid en organisatoriese burgerskapsgedrag verklaar. ‘n Literatuuroorsig is onderneem waarin belangrike antesedente van betrokkenheid en organisatoriese burgerskapsgedrag geïdentifiseer is. ‘n Aantal hipoteses is geformuleer en deur middel van ‘n ex post facto korrelasie-ontwerp getoets. Die eenheid van analise was verpleërs werksaam by twee van die grootste privaathospitaalgroepe in Suid-Afrika. Die verpleërs was werksaam by een hospitaal in Gauteng en drie hospitale in die Wes-Kaap. Data is by 208 verpleërs in die gekose hospitale versamel. Dataversameling oor al vyf veranderlikes, naamlik werksbetrokkenheid, organisatoriese burgerskapsgedrag, dienaarleierskap, sielkundige kapitaal en illegitieme take, is deur middel van selftoepasvraelyste versamel. Die volgende metings is ingesluit: Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES), Organisational Citizenship Checklist (OCB-C), Servant Leadership Questionnaire (SLQ), Psychological Capital Questionnaire (PCQ) en die Bern Illegitimate Task Scale (BITS). Die versamelde data is deur middel van item-ontleding en struktuurvergelykingsontleding geanaliseer. ‘n Gedeeltelike kleinstekwadrate-baananalise (partial least squares path analysis) is onderneem om die passing van die model te bepaal. Die belangrikste bevindinge was dat dienaarleierskap, as ‘n werkshulpbron, en sielkundige kapitaal, as ‘n persoonlike hulpbron, positief verband hou met werksbetrokkenheid onder verpleërs. Die resultate toon ook dat sielkundige kapitaal positief verband hou met organisatoriese burgerskapsgedrag. Laastens is bevind dat illegitieme take, as ‘n werkseis, negatief verband hou met werksbetrokkenheid onder verpleërs. Hierdie resultate ondersteun die aannames van die model van werkseise en hulpbronne (J-DR) dat spesifieke werks- en persoonlike hulpbronne lei tot werksbetrokkenheid. Die resultate verskaf riglyne vir praktiese bestuursimplikasies en strategieë om die uitdagings wat deur verpleërs ervaar word, aan te spreek. Die resultate, tesame met die bestuursimplikasies, het dit moontlik gemaak om waardevolle insigte en aanbevelings vir bedryfsielkundiges, asook vir verdere studies, te maak.

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A considerable percentage of the UK population are overweight (BMI≥25kg/m2) or obese (BMI≥30kg/m2). However, despite living in the same culture and exposed to a similar “obesogenic” environment, some individuals gain weight while others do not (French et al., 1995). This variability in weight control has been suggested to be associated with individual differences in eating behaviours (French et al., 2012). Certain factors, such as motivation (hedonic hunger and hunger status) as well as cognition (impulsivity and memory) may have an impact on eating behaviours and their relationship with weight control. Thus, the objective of this thesis was to explore individual differences in eating behaviours and investigate their relationship with motivation, cognition and weight control. The first experiment (Chapter 2) investigated the relationship between eating behaviours, motivation (hedonic hunger) and food consumption during an ad-libitum buffet. This study suggests that restrained eating behaviour was associated with higher overall energy intake, greater energy intake from unhealthy foods and greater energy intake from both high and low energy dense foods. However, no interactions between restraint and disinhibition or hedonic hunger was seen. Following this, the second experiment (Chapter 3) examined whether eating behaviours, such as disinhibition, restraint and hunger, change during a weight loss and weight maintenance period and whether they could predict changes in weight during these periods. Indeed, the results suggest that lower baseline restraint could predict greater weight loss during a low-energy liquid diet and interventions which increase restraint and decrease disinhibition may be beneficial for longer term weight maintenance. The third experiment (Chapter 4) was designed to investigate whether motivation and cognition influences eating behaviours. The results suggest that hedonic hunger, restraint and impulsivity may lead to higher levels of disinhibited eating behaviour. This study was also able to replicate the findings of previous literature suggesting that episodic memory is negatively associated with BMI (Cheke et al., 2016). Finally, following on from the previous study results, the fourth experiment (Chapter 5) included a more diverse sample of participants including dieters. The results provide evidence that individuals on a diet have poorer episodic memory ability than those currently not on a diet. This study also extended previous results suggesting that hedonic hunger (but also episodic memory and hunger) are important factors in disinhibited eating. Hedonic hunger was also shown to be important in levels of hunger.

This study had two major purposes: (a) to investigate and compare the perceptions of principals and teachers towards instructional supervision in Zimbabwe, and (b) to attempt to come up with a framework that would improve the effectiveness of instructional supervision in Zimbabwean schools. The study highlights the impact of political, cultural and social realities on instructional supervision in developing countries (including Zimbabwe) from which any theories of effective instructional supervision must derive. The phenomenon of instructional supervision and its related concepts is explored and analysed. The approach and methods used in the study are discussed and finally, the thesis provides a suggested framework for effective instructional supervision in Zimbabwean primary schools which concerns perceptual data which were obtained from 176 principals and 572 teachers drawn from three of Zimbabwe's ten provinces. Factor analysis of the existing situation in Zimbabwe's primary schools produced five major variables that were perceived to be associated with instructional supervision in Zimbabwean primary schools: Lack of a clear vision about what should constitute effective instructional supervision; instructional supervision models that do not promote the professional growth of teachers; ineffective leadership styles; internal and external overloads that significantly interfere with the principal's instructional supervision program; and inadequate principal capacity building for effective instructional leadership. This percetual data, subsequently crystallized into the following suggested instructional supervision initiatives: Utilization of instructional supervision models that encourage interaction between the principal and the teacher as opposed to using models that promote fault-finding or principal dominance during the instructional supervision process; establishment of a school climate that is conducive to effective instructional supervision; establishment of a staff development program that promotes effective instruction; establishment of government policies that reduce interference with the instructional supervision programs of principals; and establishment of mechanisms for building skills for principals so that they can effectively conduct instructional supervision / Educational Studies / D. Ed. (Education Management)

The wave of knowledge loss that organisations are facing on account of layoffs, retirements, staff turnover and mergers gave rise to this research. The main research aim was to identify the organisational and behavioural factors that could enhance or impede tacit knowledge retention. A multidisciplinary approach focusing on knowledge management, organisational behaviour and organisational development was followed. The nature of knowledge in organisations was explored by following a contextualised theorybuilding process, focusing on epistemology, and the appearance and application of knowledge. Knowledge in the context of this research is the knowledge and experience that reside in the minds of people. It is not easily documented, and is referred to as tacit knowing. A theoretical model was developed that revealed the factors that could influence tacit knowledge retention. The model focused on human input factors taking into account knowledge loss risks, strategic risks and behavioural threats that could cause knowledge loss.The main purpose of the empirical research was to operationalise the theoretically derived knowledge retention constructs, determine statistically the enhancing and impeding factors that influence knowledge retention and develop a structural equation model to verify the theoretical model. A quantitative empirical research paradigm using the survey method was followed. A questionnaire was compiled, and a survey conducted in the water supply industry. The principal component factor analysis postulated nine factors. A composite factor, knowledge retention, as the dependent variable was compiled. The questionnaire was found to be reliable, with a Cronbach alpha coefficient of .975. A structural equation model development strategy produced a new best-fitting knowledge retention model based on the new constructs postulated in the factor analysis. The model indicated that there is a direct causal relationship between strategy implementation and knowledge retention and between knowledge behaviours and knowledge retention. The regression analysis showed that most of the intercorrelations are significant, thus confirming the theory. The research contributed towards a comprehensive understanding of the factors that influence tacit knowledge retention. The questionnaire and the new knowledge retention model could assist organisations in determining the extent to which knowledge is retained and where to focus in developing and implementing a knowledge retention strategy. The study encourages practitioners to take cognisance of the fact that organisations are different and that the enhacing and impeding factors of knowledge retention are to be considered. / Information Science / D. Litt. et Phil. (Information Science)

Early engagement in sexual activities amongst adolescents has become a worldwide concern, with studies finding them to begin as early as 12 or earlier (Booysen & Summerton, 2000; Dowsett & Aggleton, 1999). The behaviour becomes even more concerning when youths engage in sexual relationships which are considered as “risky”, that is, that put their health and wellbeing in danger. According to Trends (2010), such behaviour increases one’s risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and unintended pregnancies. Guided by Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, this study investigated risky sexual behaviours amongst adolescents living in the rural areas. The motivation was twofold, namely: to change the behaviours and to strengthen school sexuality education programme. The study aligned itself to qualitative paradigm and adopted a case study design. Data was collected using focus interviews with 20 adolescents (10 boys and 10 girls) in the age range of 15-17 years, who were selected following purposive sampling. The findings revealed adolescents’ tendencies of engaging in risky sexual behaviours such as: sexual relationship with older people, involvement with multiple partners, unstable relationship, pornography, sex in exchange of money. Factors contributing to these behaviours include: limited sexuality education, parents not teaching about sexuality education, lack of good role models, poverty, and fear to disclose problems to teachers, ostentatious lifestyles, peer pressure, and myths about sex. Suggestions put forth for preventing involving risky sexual behaviours include: appropriate school programmes, good learner-teacher relationship, effective communication with parents, strengthening of the learning content of Life Orientation, discipline at home, good friends, closing down of illegal taverns, illegalising sex with young boys and girls and restricting access to pornography on the internet. In conclusion, I suggest that the problem be addressed ecosystematically. / Inclusive Education / M. Ed. (Inclusive Education)