Eight families with Japanese mothers and English-speaking fathers were followed from the 1990s to 2007 as they strove to raise their children as bilinguals. The issues that were investigated were: (1) the language environments afforded; (2) factors influencing family decisions in creating those language environments; and, (3) conclusions about the efficacy of different language environments for raising bilingual children. Parental sacrifice was evident. Some mothers suppressed their native Japanese language and culture as they tried to afford their children solid backgrounds in what they considered a high-prestige language (English), while some fathers changed jobs in order to spend more time at home. Some families also moved in order to be near desirable schools. An optimal English environment at home was the key to success. Fathers spent quality time with their children every day, reading English books, doing homework together, talking about school activities, and reading bedtime stories. Families provided children with many English videos, DVDs, and other audiovisual sources. Summer travel to the father's country for summer camps and other enjoyable activities, especially spending time with English-speaking cousins, promoted positive images of English language and culture. Mothers faced issues of identity, power relations, and gender roles. The mothers' own experiences of learning English played a crucial role in the choices they made in raising their children as bilinguals. Typically, power relations between husbands and wives were determined by the wives' self-perception of being subordinate to their husbands. The results indicated that different theories of bilingual child-raising, no matter how stringently followed, did not seem to matter; what mattered was balancing the time the child spent with each parent. Usually before parents expected it, the child's own identity asserted itself in the pursuit of particular language environments, and progress toward fluency was sometimes erratic, as in the case of one boy whose development in both languages appeared to be delayed but who later was viewed as having native-speaker proficiency in both languages. Overall, more important than any particular method or theory, sustained sincere efforts and flexibility can produce bilingual children. / CITE/Language Arts

This study is a situated qualitative investigation of the multiple languages and identities of three Japanese international school students in Japan. These students had no foreign heritage or experience living outside Japan, but had been educated completely in English-medium international schools since kindergarten. In effect, they had been socialized into another culture and language without leaving Japan--a relatively monolingual and monocultural country. The participants' complex linguistic situations and identities were investigated using narrative inquiry over a period of 19 months. Their narratives, gathered primarily by interviews, were supplemented by observations, interviews of those close to them, and other data sources. Using postmodernist-influenced concepts as analytical lenses, I was able to bring to light the students' complex views on language and identity emerging from their unique linguistic and cultural experiences. The students in this study revealed that one does not necessarily belong to a single dominant culture or have a single "first language." These students felt most comfortable with their multiple cultures and languages in a 'third space' (Bhabha, 1994), and they actively took part in creating their own hybrid cultures, languages, and identities. The students' hybrid languages and identities were nurtured and secure within the international school community. However, once outside this community, the students realized the complexities within themselves, requiring that they learn to negotiate their identities, as identity crucially involves location and relationships with others. When they were able to visualize their futures as bilingual/bicultural individuals, their identities became somewhat clearer and less contested. At that point, they felt that their linguistic and cultural hybridity was not entirely an obstacle, but something that they could also use to their advantage. It was when they had to make either-or choices between cultures, languages, and identities that they felt troubled or deficient. Through their narratives, the participants revealed the extent to which static categories and monolithic notions of language and culture were imposed upon them, and how these affected their understanding and perceptions of themselves. In conclusion, I interrogate such static views and urge researchers, educators, and bilingual/bicultural individuals to view languages and identities in more complex ways. / CITE/Language Arts

This dissertation describes the language and identity trajectories of twelve purposefully selected heritage Spanish adolescents who were currently studying in a heritage language program within an urban high school in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. These twelve students represented six sibling groups and five different nationalities, specifically Dominican, Ecuadorian, Puerto Rican, Salvadorian, and Venezuelan,. The research questions were: 1) How do Hispanic heritage students negotiate their bicultural/bilingual identities?; 2) What is the role of the heritage language in those negotiated identities?; 3) Do these negotiated identities influence their investment to maintain the heritage language?; 4) What are the linguistic manifestations of the Spanish spoken by these bilingual students? Findings of the study revealed that 1) the study participants negotiate their bicultural/bilingual identities in a variety of ways, 2) for some of these students, the heritage language is part of their `out of school' identities, 3) the dominant language ideologies of the school system have had a significant impact on the heritage students' investment in HL practice, and 4) although each participant's identity and linguistic trajectories are distinct, they each have maintained, to a greater or lesser degree, the aspectual preterit/imperfect contrast, and, at the same time have displayed some level of incomplete acquisition of the subjunctive mood. The implications of these findings as they relate to the fields of bilingualism, languages in contact and the developing theory of Heritage Language Acquisition are addressed in the concluding remarks. / Spanish

Language plays a crucial role in remembering, storing, maintaining, accessing, and sharing of memories. This evidence comes from the disciplines of psychoanalysis (Javier et al., 1993; Schwaneberg, 2010), developmental psychology (Fivush, 2011; Nelson, 2004), and bilingual memory (Larsen et al., 2002; Marian & Neisser, 2000). Some of the most telling examples come from bilingual psychotherapy where therapist switch to the patient’s native language in order to access childhood memories (e.g., Aragno & Schlacher, 1996). The loss of language, therefore, may have a detrimental effect on memory storage and recall. Until now, however, this possibility has not been tested. The purpose of the present study is to address this gap by investigating autobiographical memory in speakers undergoing L1 attrition. The study is grounded in the dual-coding theoretical framework (Paivio, 1971; 2014). According to the dual-coding theory, memories that are encoded with multiple memory traces (audio, visual, etc.) are remembered better and a weakening of a memory trace due to its inactivation might lead to forgetting. Therefore, memories that were encoded in a language that is no longer available might show signs of deterioration. Twelve non-attriters ages 18-28 (M=22.08; SD=3.73), 13 moderate attriters ages 18-33 (M=24.29; SD=5.43), and 10 advanced attriters ages 18-30 (M=23.1; SD=3.7) shared autobiographical memories with the help of free recall and cued-recall procedures (Marian & Neisser, 2000; Schrauf & Rubin, 2000). The pool of 420 free recall memories were analyzed for amount of detail (Levine et al., 2002) and the set of 1,988 cued recall memories were analyzed for phenomenological properties of vividness, significance, emotionality, and confidence in the event (Schrauf, 2009; Schrauf & Rubin, 2004). The results revealed that moderate attriters who had vague L1 Russian memories recalled memories with lower confidence rating in comparison to non-attriters, which suggests a negative L1 attrition effect on bilingual autobiographical memory. However, the advanced attriters were able to recall vivid and detailed L1 Russian memories. The aforementioned finding did not support the study’s hypothesis that memories might be forgotten if the language of encoding is no longer available. This can be explained by the following observation. Advanced attriters recalled their L1 Russian memories very frequently which insured a preservation of these memories. This rehearsing of L1 memories in their dominant L2 English also caused re-encoding of these memories into the dominant language. This was observed qualitatively (participants commenting on how L1 Russian memories were coming to them with L2 English words) and quantitatively (L1 Russian memories were reported to be accompanied by L2 English words). These findings have several theoretical implications for the discipline of bilingualism. L1 attrition may have a negative effect on bilingual autobiographical memory, at least as far as the phenomenological properties are concerned. However, this negative effect can be reversed by frequent rehearsing of memories that were encoded in an attrited language. Rehearsing may lead to re-encoding of L1 memories into the L2 which suggests that memories may be malleable. This demonstrates flexibility of bilingual mind and how it can adjust to L1 attrition. / Applied Linguistics

The purpose of the present study was to examine the encoding of motion in the two languages of Russian-English bilinguals who differed in their ages of arrival in the United States. Three groups of participants took part in the study: 38 L1 Russian speakers, 31 L1 English speakers and 30 Russian-English bilinguals who differed in the ages of arrival in the US (10 early, 10 childhood, and 10 late bilinguals). The participants produced oral narratives elicited with two books, Frog, Where Are You? (Mayer, 1969) and One Frog Too Many (Mayer & Mayer, 1975), with bilingual participants producing narratives in both of their languages. Quantitative and qualitative analyses of the data revealed several differences between L1 Russian and English speakers, including the obligatory encoding of manner of motion in Russian but not in English, where narrators also used generic motion verbs, such as to come or to go. In the context of these differences bilinguals in all three groups were shown to perform in accordance with specific language constraints in both of their languages. At the same time, Russian-English bilinguals used fewer motion verbs in L1 Russian and displayed lower levels of lexical diversity than L1 Russian speakers. The analyses revealed no effects of the age of arrival on the maintenance of L1 Russian, nor of the L1 Russian on the motion talk in L2 English. The findings of the study deepen our understanding of motion encoding in bilingual speakers. They also have important theoretical implications, suggesting that Talmy's dichotomy may be too broad in grouping together languages, such as Russian and English, which display dramatic differences in encoding of motion. / CITE/Language Arts

Thesis advisor: Katherine L. McNeill / An otherwise possibility recognizes “infinite alternatives to what is” (Crawley, 2017, p. 2) and acknowledges these alternatives as existing alongside our own ways of knowing and being. For bi/multilingual students, their ways of knowing and being can be represented by their multiple ways of communicating. However, through hegemonic systems of schooling, political polarization, misinformation around science, and language-exclusive ideologies, bi/multilingual students are restricted in bringing their whole personhood when learning science. As listening subjects, teachers, researchers, and students need to attune to students’ multiple ways of knowing, being, and communicating while dismantling ‘settled expectations’ pervasive in science teaching and learning (Bang et al., 2012). For example, certain pedagogical practices reduce possibilities like academic English-only pedagogies. Those practices can promote deficit orientations and ideologies of “languagelessness” onto EMLs (Flores & Rosa, 2015; Rosa, 2016) because they fail to use standardized forms of language, like academic English. This three-paper dissertation explored how to orient toward a linguistic otherwise possibility in science. The first paper was an empirical case study investigating teachers’ collaborative design work within a curriculum-based professional learning community (PLC) to orient toward students multiple ways of communicating as a part of rather than a part from sensemaking in science. The second paper investigated sensemaking moments using interaction analysis within a middle school science classroom context. Specifically, this study examined non-linguistic ways of communication as an otherwise possibility. Finally, the third paper builds from the previous two by examining a subset of three teachers’ pedagogical reasoning as they planned and designed a curriculum customization to strategically incorporate multimodal ways of communication. Building on previous literature about the importance of multimodality as a part of science practices, this paper showcased which curriculum changes shifted how students engaged in science practices and their knowledge-building work inclusive of multiple ways of communication. As a corpus, this dissertation serves as an example of what could it look like to orient towards a linguistic otherwise in science. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2024. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Education.

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Trust is an essential component of social relationships and is connected to how we make informed decisions. Humans tend to use mental shortcuts to arrive to decisions, a strategy which may be exploited by scammers. As online scams have become more common, it is critical to understand factors that can influence appraisal of potentially untrustworthy sources. The present study focused on language, in the form of self-reported bilingualism, and its relation to scam susceptibility. Language is a factor that contributes to alterations in brain structure, cognitive performance, and cognitive control systems. Bilinguals show advantages in the form of increased synaptic density and coupling which can leave highly efficient neural circuitry following early language acquisition. There is also potential for disadvantages, especially in the form of deficiencies in semantic fluency and lexical task accuracy. The present study investigated bilingualism in the realm of defense and protection from a form of cyber-attack known as phishing. The ability to detect trustworthiness or suspiciousness is the ultimate defense against scam victimization. Results supported the hypothesis that bilinguals have greater phishing classification accuracy and confidence shown by a higher end-game score during The Phishing Email Suspicion Test (PEST). Post-hoc analyses indicated marginally lower rates of false alarms and marginally higher correct rejections in bilinguals compared with monolinguals. In contrast, results did not support the hypothesis that self-reported general trust is associated with overall performance on the PEST, but some indication that lower general trust predicted more false alarms (classifying safe emails as phishing) and higher general trust predicted more misses (classifying phishing emails as safe). As the population of bilinguals is expected to increase along with sophisticated scams, this study highlights the importance of understanding the neurocognitive mechanisms associated with additional language learning and its potential impacts on decision making and trust-related behavior.

Huang Pai-yuan. / Thesis submitted in: December 1999. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2000. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 133-140). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Acknowledgements --- p.i / List of Abbreviations --- p.vi / List of Tables and Figures --- p.vii / Abstract --- p.xi / Chapter Chapter One: --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- Goal of Child Language Research and Bilingual First Language Acquisition --- p.3 / Chapter 1.2. --- Single System Hypothesis Vs. Separate Systems Hypothesis --- p.6 / Chapter 1.2.1. --- Single System Hypothesis --- p.6 / Chapter 1.2.2. --- Separate Systems Hypothesis --- p.8 / Chapter 1.3. --- Autonomous Development Hypothesis Vs. Interdependent development Hypothesis --- p.10 / Chapter 1.3.1. --- Autonomous Development Hypothesis --- p.10 / Chapter 1.3.2. --- Interdependent Development Hypothesis --- p.12 / Chapter 1.4. --- The Present Study --- p.17 / Chapter 1.4.1. --- On the Issue of Transfer in BFLA --- p.17 / Chapter 1.4.2. --- A review of Peng (1998) --- p.18 / Chapter 1.5. --- Preview of Other Chapters --- p.20 / Notes to Chapter One --- p.21 / Chapter Chapter Two: --- Methodology --- p.22 / Chapter 2.0 --- Introduction --- p.22 / Chapter 2.1. --- Source of Data --- p.22 / Chapter 2.1.1. --- Family Background and Linguistic Input --- p.22 / Chapter 2.1.2. --- Collection of Data --- p.24 / Chapter 2.1.2.1. --- Audio Recording --- p.24 / Chapter 2.1.2.2. --- Data Transcription --- p.25 / Chapter 2.1.2.3. --- Transcription of Cantonese data --- p.25 / Chapter 2.2. --- General Development of the Two Languages in the Bilingual Child --- p.26 / Chapter 2.2.1. --- Language Dominance --- p.26 / Chapter 2.2.2. --- Indices of Timmy's Bilingual Development --- p.27 / Chapter 2.2.2.1. --- MLU (Mean Length of Utterance) --- p.27 / Chapter 2.2.2.2. --- Syntactic Complexity --- p.36 / Chapter 2.3. --- Hypothesis and Predictions --- p.37 / Chapter 2.4. --- Analysis of Data --- p.38 / Notes to Chapter Two --- p.38 / Chapter Chapter Three: --- Development of Null Subjects in the Bilingual Subject's English --- p.39 / Chapter 3.0 --- Introduction --- p.39 / Chapter 3.1. --- Null Subject Phenomenon in Child Language --- p.39 / Chapter 3.1.1. --- Competence Accounts --- p.40 / Chapter 3.1.2. --- Performance Accounts --- p.43 / Chapter 3.1.3. --- Null Subjects in Timmy's English --- p.45 / Chapter 3.2. --- Properties of Null Subjects in Monolingual Child English --- p.45 / Chapter 3.3. --- Findings from Bilingual Corpus Data --- p.48 / Chapter 3.3.1. --- The Null Subject Rate in Timmy's English over the Period of Study --- p.48 / Chapter 3.3.2. --- Null Subject with INFL Properties --- p.50 / Chapter 3.3.2.1. --- Null Subject and Inflected “be´ح --- p.51 / Chapter 3.3.2.2. --- Null Subjects and Modals / Semi-auxiliaries --- p.52 / Chapter 3.3.2.3. --- Null Subjects and Morphemes (/ Verbal Affixes) “-ed´ح，“-s´ح --- p.59 / Chapter 3.3.2.4. --- Null Subjects in Finite Subordinate Clauses --- p.63 / Chapter 3.3.2.5. --- Expletive Subjects and Null Subjects --- p.63 / Chapter 3.3.3. --- Null Subjects and Person: Sub-divisions --- p.66 / Chapter 3.4. --- General Development of Grammatical Subjects in Timmy's English Data --- p.68 / Chapter 3.5. --- Findings from Diary Data --- p.72 / Chapter 3.6. --- Conclusion --- p.73 / Notes to Chapter Three --- p.74 / Chapter Chapter Four: --- Development of Null Objects in the Bilingual Subject's English --- p.75 / Chapter 4.0 --- Introduction --- p.75 / Chapter 4.1. --- Null Object Phenomenon in Child English --- p.75 / Chapter 4.1.1. --- Competence Accounts --- p.75 / Chapter 4.1.2. --- Performance Accounts --- p.76 / Chapter 4.2. --- Properties of Null Objects in Child English --- p.77 / Chapter 4.3. --- Findings from Bilingual Subject's English Corpus Data --- p.79 / Chapter 4.3.1. --- Rate of Null Objects in Timmy's English over the Period of Study --- p.79 / Chapter 4.3.2. --- Comparison with Monolingual English Child Data --- p.82 / Chapter 4.3.3. --- Null Objects and Persons: Sub-division --- p.84 / Chapter 4.4. --- General Development of Grammatical Object --- p.86 / Chapter 4.5. --- Findings from Diary Data --- p.89 / Chapter 4.6. --- Conclusion --- p.90 / Notes to Chapter Four --- p.90 / Chapter Chapter Five: --- Development of Null Subjects and Null Objects in the Bilingual Subject's Cantonese --- p.91 / Chapter 5.0 --- Introduction --- p.91 / Chapter 5.1 --- An Overview of Null Arguments in Cantonese --- p.91 / Chapter 5.1.1. --- Null Arguments as a Grammatical Option in Cantonese --- p.91 / Chapter 5.1.2. --- Distribution of Null Arguments in Cantonese Sentences --- p.96 / Chapter 5.2 --- Rate of Null Subjects and Null Objects in Adult Cantonese --- p.98 / Chapter 5.3. --- Development of Null Subjects in Monolingual Cantonese Children --- p.100 / Chapter 5.4. --- Development of Null Subjects in Timmy's Cantonese --- p.103 / Chapter 5.4.1. --- The Rate of Null Subjects Over the Period of Study --- p.103 / Chapter 5.4.2. --- Comparison with Monolingual Cantonese Child Data --- p.108 / Chapter 5.5. --- Development of Null Objects in Monolingual Cantonese Children --- p.109 / Chapter 5.6. --- Development of Null Objects in Timmy's Cantonese --- p.112 / Chapter 5.6.1. --- The Rate of Null Objects in Timmy's Cantonese Over the Period of Study --- p.112 / Chapter 5.6.2. --- VP-ellipsis in Timmy's Cantonese Corpus Data --- p.115 / Chapter 5.6.3. --- Comparison with Monolingual Cantonese Child Data --- p.116 / Chapter 5.7 --- Findings from Diary Data --- p.117 / Chapter 5.8 --- Conclusion --- p.119 / Notes to Chapter Five --- p.120 / Chapter Chapter Six: --- Discussion of Findings and Conclusions --- p.121 / Chapter 6.0 --- Introduction --- p.121 / Chapter 6.1. --- A Summary of the Findings in the English Data --- p.122 / Chapter 6.2. --- A Summary of the Findings in the Cantonese Data --- p.124 / Chapter 6.3. --- Possibility of Interaction between the Two Language Systems and the Nature of Transfer --- p.125 / Chapter 6.4. --- Un-learning Null Arguments in Ll English --- p.129 / Chapter 6.5. --- Conclusions --- p.129 / Chapter 6.6. --- Suggestions for Further Study --- p.130 / Notes to Chapter Six --- p.130 / Appendices --- p.131 / References --- p.133

No que diz respeito ao bilinguismo infantil, é grande o número de investigações que comprovam que o uso diário de duas ou mais línguas leva a um desenvolvimento acentuado de certos processos cognitivos (como a atenção seletiva e o controle inibitório), linguísticos e metalinguísticos em comparação com crianças monolíngues de mesma faixa etária (BIALYSTOK, 2001, 2005, 2006, dentre outros). Entretanto, assume-se que tais vantagens são evidentes apenas quando se trata de crianças bilíngues nativas ou com proficiência avançada nas duas línguas faladas. Nesse contexto se insere o presente estudo, que se propôs a investigar os efeitos cognitivos do bilinguismo no desenvolvimento do controle inibitório em um grupo de crianças que estudam em um contexto de escolaridade bilíngue, ou seja, crianças cuja segunda língua é aprendida e vivenciada exclusivamente em contexto escolar, em comparação com bilíngues que aprenderam a segunda língua em contexto familiar ou na comunidade em que vivem, população normalmente testada em experimentos desse tipo. Para isso, foram testadas 174 crianças entre 9 e 12 anos, sendo 75 oriundas de contexto escolar bilíngue (português/inglês), 57 de contexto familiar bilíngue (português/hunsrückisch) e 42 monolíngues do português. Duas tarefas que avaliam controle inibitório foram utilizadas: a Tarefa Simon de flechas e a Tarefa Stroop. Os resultados sugerem que as crianças que estudam em contexto escolar bilíngue, que são expostas e empregam a segunda língua diariamente, embora somente na escola, também parecem se beneficiar de uma experiência bilíngue. / Recent research on childhood bilingualism has indicated that the daily use of two or more languages sharpens the development of certain cognitive processes, such as selective attention and inhibitory control, as well as linguistic and metalinguistic processes, in bilingual children when compared to monolingual children of the same age (BIALYSTOK, 2001, 2005, 2006, amongst others). However, this advantage has only been observed with native bilingual children, or children with very high proficiency in both languages. To fill this gap, the present study aimed to investigate the effect of bilingualism on inhibitory control in bilingual children who experience bilingualism (or second language learning) exclusively in a school context, compared to the usual sample of bilingual children who experience bilingualism at home or in the community. Thus, 174 children of ages 9 to 12 from three different linguistic groups (75 school bilinguals; 57 home bilinguals and 42 monolinguals) participated in the study. Children completed both the Simon Arrows and the Stroop Tasks to assess their inhibitory control with both non-linguistic and linguistic stimuli. Results suggest that bilingual children from a school context, who deal with both languages on a daily basis, although only at school, also show cognitive advantages due to a bilingual experience.