La haute sensibilité et l’analyse simultanée de plusieurs biomarqueurs (multiplexage) sont des enjeux essentiels pour permettre des avancées significatives pour le diagnostic médical. De telles avancées permettraient d’augmenter la précocité des diagnostics pour de nombreuses maladies comme le cancer ou des maladies cardiaques. Les immunodosages de FRET (transfer d’énergie par resonance de type Förster) sont basées sur la reconnaissance de biomarqueurs par des anticorps marqués avec des fluorophores et le FRET qui résulte du processus de reconnaissance immunologique. Aujourd’hui des telles immunodosages sont établis en utilisant des lanthanides comme donneurs de FRET et des fluorophores organiques comme accepteurs de FRET. Néanmoins, ils ne permettent pas de réaliser un multiplexage efficace car l’utilisation de plusieurs différents fluorophores organiques résulte dans un recouvrement spectral. Ce projet a pour but de mettre en application les propriétés optiques exceptionnelles des complexes de terbium (Tb) et des boîtes quantiques (QDs) pour parvenir à des analyses biologiques de FRET multiplexées et ultrasensibles. Nous avons également étudié les propriétés optiques et morphologiques de nouvelles nanoparticules à conversion ascendante de type coeur et coeur/coquille dopées à l'ytterbium (Yb) et des ions d'erbium (Er) comme donneurs de FRET. / Combining high sensitivity with simultaneous analysis of numerous biomarkers (multiplexing) is an essential requirement for significantly improving the field of biomedical diagnostics. Such progresses would allow earlier diagnosis, which is required for numerous diseases such as cancer or cardiac diseases. FRET-immunoassays are based on biomolecular recognition events that occur between biomarkers and two specific antibodies conjugated with different fluorophores. The spatial proximity of the two fluorophores can lead to Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), which can be detected for biomarker quantification. To date, such assays are established using lanthanide complexes as FRET donors and fluorescence dyes as FRET acceptors. However, these assays do not provide sufficient multiplexing capability due to spectral overlap, when several acceptor dyes are used. This project aims at exploiting the exceptional photophysical properties of terbium complexes (Tb) and semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) to provide ultrasensitive multiplexed FRETimmunoassays. We also studied the optical and morphological properties of novel core and core/shell upconverting nanoparticles doped with ytterbium (Yb) and erbium (Er) ions as possible FRET-donors for biosensing.

We report on a novel and simple approach to surface ligand design of CdSe-based nanocrystals (NCs) with biocompatible, heterobifunctional polyethylene glycol (PEG) molecules. This method provides high transfer yields of the NCs into aqueous media with preservation of the narrow and symmetric emission bands of the initial organic-capped NCs regardless of their interior crystal structure and surface chemistry. The PEG-functionalized NCs show small sizes, high photoluminescence quantum yields of up to 75%, as well as impressive optical and colloidal stability. This universal approach is applied to different fluorescent nanomaterials (CdSe/CdS, CdSe/CdSCdxZn1–xS, and CdSe/CdS/ZnS), extending the great potential of organic-capped NCs for biological applications.

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In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden drei neue Klassen von modular zugänglichen Elektrophilen für die Biokonjugation von Cystein vorgestellt. Diethynyl-phosphinate (DPs) wurden als bisreaktive Elektrophile für die cysteinselektive Markierung von Peptiden, Proteinen und Antikörpern entwickelt. In diesen Molekülen können beide elektronenarmen Dreifachbindungen unter physiologischen Bedingungen mit Thiol-Nukleophilen reagieren und die erhaltenen Konjugate sind in menschlichem Plasma und in Gegenwart großer Mengen an reduziertem Glutathion stabil. Darüber hinaus wurden DPs in der selektiven Herstellung verschiedener Protein-(Doppel)-Konjugate angewandt. Neben der klassischen Proteinmodifikation können DPs auch zur kovalenten Verbrückung der Disulfidbrücken von Antikörpern eingesetzt werden. Weiters wurde mit Hilfe von Dichtefunktionaltheorie-Berechnungen werden Ethinyl-triazolyl-phosphinate (ETP) als eine neue Klasse hochreaktiver Elektrophile für die Cystein-Biokonjugation entdeckt. Die Berechnungen zeigen, dass sowohl die elektronenziehenden als auch die π-Elektronen donierenden Eigenschaften des Triazolrings die Reaktivität erhöhen. Vor allem aber wird gezeigt, dass ETP-Elektrophile über die chemoselektive Cu(I)-katalysierte Azid-Alkin-Cycloaddition in ein azidhaltiges Molekül eingebaut werden können. Da diese Reaktion problemlos in wässrigen Puffersystemen abläuft, konnte eine Vielzahl funktioneller Elektrophile, einschließlich elektrophiler Peptide und Proteine, aus DPs erzeugt werden. Schließlich wurden Diethinylphosphinoxide als chemoselektive Reagenzien zur Disulfidvererbrückung untersucht. Insbesondere Diethinyl-Triazolyl-Phosphinoxide (DTP) sind vielversprechende Kandidaten, da sie die modulare Synthese von ETP-Elektrophilen mit den beiden reaktiven Gruppen in DPs kombinieren. Die Fähigkeit der DTP-Reagenzien, Disulfide zu verbrücken, wurde durch die Bildung mehrerer funktioneller Antikörperkonjugate gezeigt. / The present work introduces three new classes of modular accessible electrophiles for cysteine bioconjugation. Diethynyl-phosphinates (DPs) were developed as bisreactive electrophiles for the cysteine-selective modification of peptides, proteins and antibodies. Both electrophilic alkynes can react with thiol-nucleophiles under physiological conditions. The corresponding double-conjugates are stable in human plasma and in the presence of a large excess reduced glutathione. Furthermore, the general applicability of diethynyl phosphinates for cysteine selective bioconjugation was established by the generation of various protein-(double)-conjugates and their application in cell experiments. Additionally, DPs can be employed to covalently rebridge the interchain disulfides of therapeutically relevant IgG1 antibodies. Furthermore, with the help of density functional theory based calculations, ethynyl-triazolyl-phosphinates (ETP) were discovered as a new class of highly reactive electrophilic warheads for cysteine bioconjugation. According to the calculations, both the electron withdrawing as well as the π-electron donating properties of the triazole-ring enhance the reactivity of the electrophile. Most importantly, it was demonstrated that ETP electrophiles can be incorporated into a given azide containing molecule via the chemoselective CuI-catalyzed azide alkyne cycloaddition. ETP-reagents were used to obtain functional peptide-, protein- and antibody-conjugates, as well as site-specifically linked diubiquitins. Finally, diethynyl phosphine oxides were explored as chemoselective reagents for disulfide rebridging. Especially diethynyl-triazolyl-phosphine oxides (DTP) are promising candidates since they combine the modular synthesis of ETP-electrophiles with the two reactive groups present in diethynyl phosphinates. The capability of DTP-reagents to rebridged disulfides was proven by the formation several functional antibody conjugates.

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La mission centrale de la chimie verte est d'inventer de nouveaux procédés non polluants pour remplacer les technologies peu favorables à l'environnement. L'emploi de métaux de transition relativement non toxiques en quantités catalytiques associés à des ligands chiraux a permis de réaliser une avancée dans le domaine de la synthèse asymétrique. Dans ce travail, nous avons mis en évidence la possibilité de l'utilisation du peroxyde d'hydrogène, un oxydant vert et économique, en association avec des métalloporphyrines hydrosolubles (Fe, Mn) pour effectuer des réactions d'oxydation asymétrique (sulfoxydation, époxydation et hydroxylation). Ces systèmes représentatifs d'un modèle de l'effet « shunt » des enzymes monooxygénases dérivées de la famille cytochrome P450 sont très efficaces. Ils conduisent dans certains cas à des excès énantiomériques élevés (82%). D'autre part, nous avons développé les réactions de transfert de carbènes dans l'eau (insertion N-H et cyclopropanation asymétrique) catalysées par des porphyrines de fer. L'utilisation du fer comme métal a permis de surmonter plusieurs limites souvent rencontrées avec d'autres métaux (Ru, Rh) lors des réactions de transfert de carbènes dans l'eau. Comme application de la réaction d'insertion N-H, nous avons réalisé la bio-conjugaison régiosélective de l'insuline avec une conversion très élevée (90%). / The goal of green chemistry is to promote the research and the development of innovative chemical technologies in order to reduce the contamination of environment. Significant progress in this field has been made by using relatively non toxic transition metal and chiral ligands to catalyze enantioselective transformations. In this work, we have reported the combination of hydrogen peroxide as environmentally benign and atom-economically oxidant with water-soluble metalloporphyrins (Fe, Mn) for the asymmetric oxidation of sulfides, alkenes and C-H bonds. These catalytic systems widely studied as models of cytochrome P450, gave high enantiomeric excesses (ee up to 82%). In the other hand, we have developed carbene transfer reactions in water as « green » solvent catalyzed by water soluble iron porphyrins. This metal (Fe) has been found to overcome many limitations related to the use of other metals (Ru, Rh) in aqueous media. As an application of N-H insertion reaction, the regioselective bio-conjugation of insulin has been demonstrated with high conversion (90%).

Protein therapeutics offer numerous advantages over small molecule drugs and are rapidly becoming one of the most prominent classes of therapeutics. Unfortunately, they are delivered almost exclusively by injection due to biological obstacles preventing high bioavailability via the oral route. In this work, numerous approaches to overcoming these barriers are explored. PH-Responsive poly(itaconic acid-co-N-vinylpyrrolidone) (P(IA-co-NVP)) hydrogels were synthesized, and the effects of monomer ratios, crosslinking density, microparticle size, protein size, and loading conditions were systematically evaluated using in vitro tests. P(IA-co-NVP) hydrogels demonstrated up to 69% greater equilibrium swelling at neutral conditions than previously-studied poly(methacrylic acid-co-N-vinylpyrrolidone) hydrogels and a 10-fold improvement in time-sensitive swelling experiments. Furthermore, P(IA-co-NVP) hydrogel microparticles demonstrated up to a 2.7-fold improvement in delivery of salmon calcitonin (sCT) compared to methacrylic acid-based systems, with a formulation comprised of a 1:2 ratio of itaconic acid to N-vinylpyrrolidone demonstrating the greatest delivery capability. Vast improvement in delivery capability was achieved using reduced ionic strength conditions during drug loading. Use of a 1.50 mM PBS buffer during loading yielded an 83-fold improvement in delivery of sCT compared to a standard 150 mM buffer. With this improvement, a daily dose of sCT could be provided using P(IA-co-NVP) microparticles in one standard-sized gel capsule. P(IA-co-NVP) was also tested with larger proteins urokinase and Rituxan. Crosslinking density provided a facile method for tuning hydrogels to accommodate a wide range of protein sizes. The effects of protein PEGylation were also explored. PEGylated sCT displayed lower release from P(IA-co-NVP) microparticles, but displayed increased apparent permeability across a Caco-2 monolayer by two orders of magnitude. Therefore, PEG-containing systems could yield high bioavailability of orally delivered proteins. Finally, a modified SELEX protocol for cellular selection of transcellular transport-initiating aptamers was developed and used to identify aptamer sequences showing enhanced intestinal perfusion. Over three selection cycles, the selected aptamer library showed significant increases in absorption, and from an initial library of 1.1 trillion sequences, 5-10 sequences were selected that demonstrated up to 10-fold amplification compared to the naïve library. These sequences could provide a means of overcoming the significant final barrier of intestinal absorption. / text

Gold nanoparticles exhibit a combination of physical, chemical, optical, and electronic properties unique from all other nanotechnologies. These structures can provide a highly multifunctional platform with which to diagnose and treat diseases and can dramatically enhance a variety of photonic and electronic processes and devices. The work herein highlights some newly emerging applications of these phenomena as they relate to the targeted diagnosis and treatment of cancer, improved charge carrier generation in photovoltaic device materials, and strategies for enhanced spectrochemical analysis and detection. Chapter 1 introduces the reader to the design, synthesis, and molecular functionalization of gold nanotechnologies, and provides a framework from which to discuss the unique photophysical properties and applications of these nanoscale materials and their physiological interactions in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 discusses ongoing preclinical research in our lab investigating the use of near-infrared absorbing gold nanorods as photothermal contrast agents for laser ablation therapy of solid tumors. In Chapter 4, we present recent work developing a novel strategy for the targeted treatment of hormone-dependent breast and prostate tumors using multivalent gold nanoparticles that function as highly selective and potent endocrine receptor antagonist chemotherapeutics. In Chapter 5, we discuss a newly-emerging tumor-targeting strategy for nanoscale drug carriers which relies on their selective delivery to immune cells that exhibit high accumulation and infiltration into breast and brain tumors. Using this platform, we further investigate the interactions of nanoscale drug carriers and imaging agents to a transmembrane protein considered to be the single most prevalent and single most important contributor to drug resistance and the failure of chemotherapy. Chapter 6 presents work from a series of studies exploring enhanced charge carrier generation and relaxation in a hybrid electronic system exhibiting resonant interactions between photovoltaic device materials and plasmonic gold nanoparticles. Chapter 7 concludes by presenting studies investigating the contributions from so-called “dark” plasmon modes to the spectrochemical diagnostic method known as surface enhanced Raman scattering.