Está bem documentada a importância da disfunção autonômica na evolução das complicações do Diabetes. Adicionalmente, novas e consistentes evidências indicam que o controle reflexo da circulação comandado pelos baroreceptores poderia ser um marcador prognóstico precoce no Diabete melito, clínico e experimental. No presente projeto, testamos a hipótese de que a disfunção barorreflexa interfere no desenvolvimento da nefropatia e cardiomiopatia diabética por alterar a modulação autonômica comandada pelos barorreceptores arteriais sobre vasos e coração. Foram utilizados ratos Wistar machos (230 a 260g) divididos em 4 grupos experimentais: controle (GC, n=9), diabético (GD, n=11), desnervado (GCD, n=9) e desnervado diabético (GDD, n=8). Após 7 dias de desnervação sinoaórtica, foi realizada a indução do diabetes (DM) por estreptozotocina (STZ). Foram realizadas avaliações metabólicas, teste de tolerância a glicose e avaliações ecocardiográficas durante a terceira semana do protocolo. A partir dos 28 dias de protocolo foram realizados registros diretos da pressão arterial (PA) e avaliações da sensibilidade barorreflexas, da modulação autonômica cardiovascular (variabilidade da freqüência cardíaca e da PA sistólica), análise dos fluxos sanguíneos regionais e avaliações renais ex vivo. Os grupos diabéticos (GD e GDD) apresentaram aumento da glicemia e redução do peso corporal, da PA e da freqüência cardíaca quando comparados com os grupos não diabéticos (GC e GCD). Os grupos diabéticos apresentaram uma maior área de resposta sob a curva de resposta glicêmica quando comparados aos grupos controle, indicando assim uma intolerância maior a glicose. Nos parâmetros morfométricos, o septo interventricular (SIVDIA) mostrou-se menor nos grupos diabéticos quando comparados ao GC. A parede posterior do ventrículo esquerdo (PPDIA) mostrou-se diminuída somente no grupo diabético. Com relação ao tamanho da cavidade do ventrículo esquerdo na diástole (VEDIA), observou-se uma tendência a aumento em todos os grupos quando comparados ao controle. A massa do ventrículo esquerdo (MVE) foi menor no grupo diabético em relação ao controle e maior nos grupos submetidos à DSA quando comparados ao GC. A função sistólica foi avaliada pela fração de ejeção (FE), na qual não foi observada diferença entre os grupos estudados. A função diastólica foi avaliada pelo tempo de relaxamento isovolumétrico (TRIV) que foi maior no grupo diabético quando comparado ao controle. Já o grupo desnervado apresentou valores próximos ao do GC. Entretanto, o grupo desnervado diabético apresentou valores menores de TRIV quando comparado aos animais apenas diabéticos. Disfunção autonômica, avaliada pela sensibilidade barorreflexa, pela variabilidade da FC (VFC) e da PA sistólica (VPAS), foram observadas nos grupos GD, GCD e GDD em relação ao grupo C. Os fluxos sanguíneos analisados nesse protocolo (coronariano, pulmonar, renal e muscular) apresentaram-se reduzidos em todos os grupos experimentais quando comparados ao GC. O grupo submetido à SAD mostrou uma redução mais acentuada em todos os fluxos sanguíneos estudados. A resistência vascular periférica total encontra-se aumentada em todos os grupos analisados com um aumento maior nos grupos diabéticos. O débito cardíaco mostrou-se reduzido em todos os grupos estudados, em especial no grupo desnervado diabético, quando comparados com o GC. Com relação ao índice cardíaco, também observamos uma redução em todos os grupos, com uma redução maior nos grupos diabéticos sendo que a desnervação não foi capaz de atenuar essa redução no grupo desnervado diabético. A avaliação renal mostrou um aumento da pressão de perfusão do GD, acompanhado por um aumento significativo na resistência vascular renal, no fluxo urinário, no ritmo de filtração glomerular. Dessa forma, os resultados obtidos no presente trabalho fornecem evidencias de que o papel homeostático do baroreflexo é essencial no curso das alterações cardíacas e renais tanto em animais normoglicêmicos como nos hiperglicêmicos, por sua ação não só no controle das variações momento a momento (labilidade) como também interferindo em alterações sustentadas da PA, como observado nesse trabalho. Esses resultados poderão dar suporte a estudos populacionais que associam maior sensibilidade do baroreflexo com melhor prognóstico e sobrevida após evento cardiovascular em indivíduos diabéticos / It is well documented the importance of autonomic dysfunction in microvascular complications of diabetes. Additionally, new and consistent evidence indicates that the reflex control of movement is controlled by the baroreceptors could be an early prognostic marker in diabetes mellitus, clinical and experimental. In this project, we tested the hypothesis that baroreflex dysfunction interferes with the development of nephropathy and diabetic cardiomyopathy by altering the autonomic modulation controlled by the arterial baroreceptors on heart and blood vessels. We used male Wistar rats (230 to 260g) were divided into four groups: control group (n = 9), diabetic (GD, n = 11), denervated (GCD, n = 9) and diabetic denervated (GDD, n = 8). After 7 days of sinoaortic denervation was performed we induced diabetes (DM) by streptozotocin (STZ). We evaluated metabolic, glucose tolerance test and echocardiographic evaluations during the third week of the protocol. After 28 days of protocol records were taken direct blood pressure (BP) and baroreflex sensitivity assessments of cardiovascular autonomic (heart rate variability and systolic BP), regional blood flow analysis and evaluations kidney ex vivo. Diabetic groups (GD and GDD) had higher blood glucose and reduced body weight, blood pressure and heart rate when compared with non-diabetic groups (GC and GCD). Diabetic groups showed a larger response area under the glycemic response curve when compared to control groups, thus indicating an increased glucose intolerance. The morphometric parameters, interventricular septum (IVSD) was lower in both diabetic groups compared to CG. The back wall of the left ventricle (PPDIA) was reduced only in diabetic mice. Regarding the size of the cavity of the left ventricle during diastole (Vedia), there was a tendency to increase in all groups compared to control. The left ventricular mass (LVM) was lower in the diabetic group compared to control, and higher in the groups submitted to DSA when compared to CG. Systolic function was evaluated by ejection fraction (EF), in which there was no difference between groups. Diastolic function was evaluated by isovolumic relaxation time (IVRT) was greater in the diabetic group compared to control. The denervated group showed similar to the CG. However, the denervated diabetic group showed lower values of IVRT as compared to diabetic animals only. Autonomic dysfunction, as assessed by baroreflex sensitivity by HR variability (HRV) and systolic (VPAS) were observed in groups GD, GCD and GDD than in group C. The blood flows analyzed in this protocol (coronary, pulmonary, kidney and muscle) were reduced in all experimental groups compared to CG. The group submitted to SAD showed a marked reduction in all blood flows studied. The total peripheral vascular resistance is increased in all groups with a greater increase in the diabetic group. Cardiac output was reduced in all groups, especially in denervated diabetic group compared with the GC. With respect to cardiac index, we also observed a reduction in all groups, with a greater reduction in the diabetic group and that denervation was not able to mitigate this reduction in denervated diabetic group. The evaluation showed an increase in renal perfusion pressure of the GD, accompanied by a significant increase in renal vascular resistance, urinary flow, the glomerular filtration rate. Thus, the results obtained in this study provide evidence that the homeostatic role of the baroreflex is essential in the course of changes in both heart and kidney as in hyperglycemic animals normoglycemic by acting not only in control of changes moment to moment (lability) as well as interfering with sustained changes in BP, as observed in this study. These results could support population studies linking higher sensitivity of the baroreflex with a better prognosis and survival after a cardiovascular event in diabetic subjects

INTRODUÇÃO: O balão intra-aórtico (BIA) representa o mecanismo de assistência ventricular mais frequentemente utilizado em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca (IC), no Brasil. OBJETIVO: Neste trabalho, avaliamos a ação do BIA sobre o fluxo sanguíneo carotídeo e braquial, além do seu efeito sobre os marcadores de perfusão tecidual e sobre o peptídeo natriurético cerebral (BNP). MÉTODOS: Entre julho de 2006 e maio de 2009, 33 pacientes foram avaliados, sendo 10 excluídos. Os pacientes foram inicialmente mantidos com o BIA em modo 1:1, com insuflação máxima, para a fase inicial do estudo (condição 1). Realizou-se coleta de gasometria arterial, venosa central e BNP (condição EXA1). Foi realizada ultrassonografia vascular de alta definição, para captação de imagens das curvas de velocidade de fluxo sanguíneo, e medida dos diâmetros arteriais sistólico e diastólico (condição MD1). Em seguida, foi avaliada a resposta vascular frente à hiperemia reativa (condição HR1). Realizado o estudo na condição 1, o BIA foi modificado para 1:3 com insuflação mínima (condição 2) e todos os exames laboratoriais (condição EXA 2) e ultrassonográficos (condição MD2 e condição HR2) foram repetidos. Após a condição 2, passou-se à condição 3, na qual o BIA foi novamente modificado para a assistência 1:1, com insuflação máxima. Da mesma forma que nas condições anteriores, foram realizados exames laboratoriais (condição EXA 3) e a ultrassonografia (condição MD3 e HR3). A avaliação estatística foi realizada através da análise de variância para medidas repetidas e o uso do teste não paramétrico de Friedman. RESULTADOS: A idade média dos pacientes selecionados foi de 49,7 ± 13 anos, sendo 17 (74%) do sexo masculino e 6 (26%) do sexo feminimo. Quanto à etiologia, 9 (39%) pacientes eram portadores de miocardiopatia isquêmica, 8 (34%) miocardiopatia dilatada idiopática, 4 (17%) tinham etiologia chagásica e 2 (8%) por valvopatias. A fração de ejeção, estimada pelo ecocardiograma variou de 14 a 40%, com Resumo média de 22 +-8%. Nove pacientes (39%) encontravam-se em fila para transplante cardíaco, no momento da inclusão no protocolo, e a mortalidade durante a internação foi de 60,8%. Analisados os dados laboratoriais, não houve, entre as três medidas realizadas, diferença com significância estatística nos valores de bicarbonato arterial (BIC), assim como, nos valores de excesso de base (BE). Também não detectamos mudanças na saturação venosa central de oxigênio (SVcO2), no nível sérico de BNP e no gradiente venoarterial de CO2(DeltaPCO2). Os resultados das análises da velocidade de fluxo, índice de fluxo carotídeo e integral velocidade-tempo na condição MD1, MD2 e MD3 não revelaram diferenças estatisticamente significantes. Analisado o território braquial, considerando a velocidade de fluxo braquial não houve diferença entre a condição MD1 e a condição MD2 e entre a condição MD1 e a condição MD3. Entretanto, identificamos diferença entre as condições MD2 e MD3 (p=0,01). Não encontramos diferença com significância entre as três condições considerando o índice de fluxo e a integral velocidade-tempo. Na prova de hiperemia reativa não encontramos alteração entre as condições HR1, HR2 e HR3, quando avaliamos a velocidade de fluxo, o índice de fluxo e a integral velocidade-tempo. A dilatação fluxo mediada da artéria braquial (DILA) encontrava-se alterada desde o momento inicial, porém o protocolo não revelou alterações entre HR1, HR2 e HR3. CONCLUSÃO: Em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca, a assistência com o BIA não modificou o fluxo sanguíneo regional em território cerebral e muscular esquelético avaliados pelo fluxo da carótida e artéria braquial, respectivamente. Da mesma forma, não houve alteração da perfusão tecidual e função cardíaca avaliados pelos marcadores do metabolismo oxidativo e sobrecarga hídrica utilizados. A função endotelial avaliada na condição de duplo pulso de fluxo da artéria braquial propiciada pela assistência circulatória do BIA evidenciou-se alterada com dimunuição da reatividade vascular / BACKGROUND: The intra-aortic balloon (IAB) represents the mechanism of ventricular assist more often used in patients with heart failure (HF) in our midst. OBJECTIVE: In this study, we evaluated the action of the IAB on the carotid and brachial blood flow, in addition to its effect on markers of tissue perfusion and the brain natriuretic peptide (BNP). METHODS: Between July 2006 and May 2009, 33 patients were evaluated, 10 were excluded. Patients were initially maintained with the IAB in 1:1 mode with maximum insufflation, for the initial phase of the study (condition 1). Held collection of arterial and central venous blood gases, and BNP (condition EXA1). Vascular ultrasonography was performed in high definition, to capture images of the curves of blood flow velocity, and measurement of systolic and diastolic arterial diameters (condition MD1). Then we evaluated the vascular responses to reactive hyperemia (condition HR1). Conducted the study in condition 1, the IAB was changed to 1:3 with minimal insufflation (condition 2) and all laboratory tests (condition EXA 2) and ultrasound (condition MD2 and HR2) were repeated. After the second condition, the IAB was again modified to 1:1, with maximum insufflation (condition 3). Similarly to the previous conditions, laboratory tests (condition EXA 3) and ultrasound (condition MD3 and HR3) were performed. Statistical evaluation was performed by analysis of variance for repeated measures and the use of Friedman nonparametric test. RESULTS: The mean age of the selected patients was 49.7 +- 13 years, 17 (74%) males and 6 (26%) were females. Concerning etiology, 9 (39%) patients had ischemic cardiomyopathy, 8 (34%), idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy, 4 (17%) had Chagas disease and 2 were (8%) related to valvulopathy. Ejection fraction estimated by echocardiography ranged from 14 to 40%, with a mean of 22 +- 8%. Nine patients (39%) were in line for a heart transplant at the time of inclusion in the protocol and mortality during hospitalization was 60.8%. Analyzed laboratory data, among the three measurements, there was not statistically significant difference in the values of arterial bicarbonate (BIC) and base excess (BE). We also did not detect changes in central venous oxygen saturation (SCVO2) or in serum BNP level and venoarterial carbon dioxide gradient (DeltaPCO2). The results of the analysis of carotid flow velocity, index of carotid flow and velocity time integral in condition MD1, MD2 and MD3 revealed no statistically significant difference. Examined the brachial territory, there was no difference between the condition MD1 and MD2 and between MD1 and MD3 considering the flow velocity. However, there was difference between conditions MD2 and MD3 (p = 0.01). We found no significant difference between the three conditions considering the brachial flow index and velocity time integral. The flow-mediated dilation of the brachial artery (FMD) found itself changed from the initial moment, but the protocol does not reveal changes between HR1, HR2 and HR3. CONCLUSION: In heart failure patients, assistance with the BIA did not alter regional blood flow in brain and skeletal muscle territory assessed by flow carotid and brachial artery, respectively. Likewise, there was no change in tissue perfusion and cardiac function assessed by markers of oxidative metabolism and fluid overload used. Endothelial function evaluated on condition of dual pulse brachial artery flow provided by BIA circulatory support showed up changed with decreased vascular reactivity

Está bem documentada a importância da disfunção autonômica na evolução das complicações do Diabetes. Adicionalmente, novas e consistentes evidências indicam que o controle reflexo da circulação comandado pelos baroreceptores poderia ser um marcador prognóstico precoce no Diabete melito, clínico e experimental. No presente projeto, testamos a hipótese de que a disfunção barorreflexa interfere no desenvolvimento da nefropatia e cardiomiopatia diabética por alterar a modulação autonômica comandada pelos barorreceptores arteriais sobre vasos e coração. Foram utilizados ratos Wistar machos (230 a 260g) divididos em 4 grupos experimentais: controle (GC, n=9), diabético (GD, n=11), desnervado (GCD, n=9) e desnervado diabético (GDD, n=8). Após 7 dias de desnervação sinoaórtica, foi realizada a indução do diabetes (DM) por estreptozotocina (STZ). Foram realizadas avaliações metabólicas, teste de tolerância a glicose e avaliações ecocardiográficas durante a terceira semana do protocolo. A partir dos 28 dias de protocolo foram realizados registros diretos da pressão arterial (PA) e avaliações da sensibilidade barorreflexas, da modulação autonômica cardiovascular (variabilidade da freqüência cardíaca e da PA sistólica), análise dos fluxos sanguíneos regionais e avaliações renais ex vivo. Os grupos diabéticos (GD e GDD) apresentaram aumento da glicemia e redução do peso corporal, da PA e da freqüência cardíaca quando comparados com os grupos não diabéticos (GC e GCD). Os grupos diabéticos apresentaram uma maior área de resposta sob a curva de resposta glicêmica quando comparados aos grupos controle, indicando assim uma intolerância maior a glicose. Nos parâmetros morfométricos, o septo interventricular (SIVDIA) mostrou-se menor nos grupos diabéticos quando comparados ao GC. A parede posterior do ventrículo esquerdo (PPDIA) mostrou-se diminuída somente no grupo diabético. Com relação ao tamanho da cavidade do ventrículo esquerdo na diástole (VEDIA), observou-se uma tendência a aumento em todos os grupos quando comparados ao controle. A massa do ventrículo esquerdo (MVE) foi menor no grupo diabético em relação ao controle e maior nos grupos submetidos à DSA quando comparados ao GC. A função sistólica foi avaliada pela fração de ejeção (FE), na qual não foi observada diferença entre os grupos estudados. A função diastólica foi avaliada pelo tempo de relaxamento isovolumétrico (TRIV) que foi maior no grupo diabético quando comparado ao controle. Já o grupo desnervado apresentou valores próximos ao do GC. Entretanto, o grupo desnervado diabético apresentou valores menores de TRIV quando comparado aos animais apenas diabéticos. Disfunção autonômica, avaliada pela sensibilidade barorreflexa, pela variabilidade da FC (VFC) e da PA sistólica (VPAS), foram observadas nos grupos GD, GCD e GDD em relação ao grupo C. Os fluxos sanguíneos analisados nesse protocolo (coronariano, pulmonar, renal e muscular) apresentaram-se reduzidos em todos os grupos experimentais quando comparados ao GC. O grupo submetido à SAD mostrou uma redução mais acentuada em todos os fluxos sanguíneos estudados. A resistência vascular periférica total encontra-se aumentada em todos os grupos analisados com um aumento maior nos grupos diabéticos. O débito cardíaco mostrou-se reduzido em todos os grupos estudados, em especial no grupo desnervado diabético, quando comparados com o GC. Com relação ao índice cardíaco, também observamos uma redução em todos os grupos, com uma redução maior nos grupos diabéticos sendo que a desnervação não foi capaz de atenuar essa redução no grupo desnervado diabético. A avaliação renal mostrou um aumento da pressão de perfusão do GD, acompanhado por um aumento significativo na resistência vascular renal, no fluxo urinário, no ritmo de filtração glomerular. Dessa forma, os resultados obtidos no presente trabalho fornecem evidencias de que o papel homeostático do baroreflexo é essencial no curso das alterações cardíacas e renais tanto em animais normoglicêmicos como nos hiperglicêmicos, por sua ação não só no controle das variações momento a momento (labilidade) como também interferindo em alterações sustentadas da PA, como observado nesse trabalho. Esses resultados poderão dar suporte a estudos populacionais que associam maior sensibilidade do baroreflexo com melhor prognóstico e sobrevida após evento cardiovascular em indivíduos diabéticos / It is well documented the importance of autonomic dysfunction in microvascular complications of diabetes. Additionally, new and consistent evidence indicates that the reflex control of movement is controlled by the baroreceptors could be an early prognostic marker in diabetes mellitus, clinical and experimental. In this project, we tested the hypothesis that baroreflex dysfunction interferes with the development of nephropathy and diabetic cardiomyopathy by altering the autonomic modulation controlled by the arterial baroreceptors on heart and blood vessels. We used male Wistar rats (230 to 260g) were divided into four groups: control group (n = 9), diabetic (GD, n = 11), denervated (GCD, n = 9) and diabetic denervated (GDD, n = 8). After 7 days of sinoaortic denervation was performed we induced diabetes (DM) by streptozotocin (STZ). We evaluated metabolic, glucose tolerance test and echocardiographic evaluations during the third week of the protocol. After 28 days of protocol records were taken direct blood pressure (BP) and baroreflex sensitivity assessments of cardiovascular autonomic (heart rate variability and systolic BP), regional blood flow analysis and evaluations kidney ex vivo. Diabetic groups (GD and GDD) had higher blood glucose and reduced body weight, blood pressure and heart rate when compared with non-diabetic groups (GC and GCD). Diabetic groups showed a larger response area under the glycemic response curve when compared to control groups, thus indicating an increased glucose intolerance. The morphometric parameters, interventricular septum (IVSD) was lower in both diabetic groups compared to CG. The back wall of the left ventricle (PPDIA) was reduced only in diabetic mice. Regarding the size of the cavity of the left ventricle during diastole (Vedia), there was a tendency to increase in all groups compared to control. The left ventricular mass (LVM) was lower in the diabetic group compared to control, and higher in the groups submitted to DSA when compared to CG. Systolic function was evaluated by ejection fraction (EF), in which there was no difference between groups. Diastolic function was evaluated by isovolumic relaxation time (IVRT) was greater in the diabetic group compared to control. The denervated group showed similar to the CG. However, the denervated diabetic group showed lower values of IVRT as compared to diabetic animals only. Autonomic dysfunction, as assessed by baroreflex sensitivity by HR variability (HRV) and systolic (VPAS) were observed in groups GD, GCD and GDD than in group C. The blood flows analyzed in this protocol (coronary, pulmonary, kidney and muscle) were reduced in all experimental groups compared to CG. The group submitted to SAD showed a marked reduction in all blood flows studied. The total peripheral vascular resistance is increased in all groups with a greater increase in the diabetic group. Cardiac output was reduced in all groups, especially in denervated diabetic group compared with the GC. With respect to cardiac index, we also observed a reduction in all groups, with a greater reduction in the diabetic group and that denervation was not able to mitigate this reduction in denervated diabetic group. The evaluation showed an increase in renal perfusion pressure of the GD, accompanied by a significant increase in renal vascular resistance, urinary flow, the glomerular filtration rate. Thus, the results obtained in this study provide evidence that the homeostatic role of the baroreflex is essential in the course of changes in both heart and kidney as in hyperglycemic animals normoglycemic by acting not only in control of changes moment to moment (lability) as well as interfering with sustained changes in BP, as observed in this study. These results could support population studies linking higher sensitivity of the baroreflex with a better prognosis and survival after a cardiovascular event in diabetic subjects

In this study we design a succession of three increasingly adept diffuse optical devices towards the simultaneous 3D imaging of blood flow and fluorescence contrasts in relatively deep tissues. These metrics together can provide future insights into the relationship between blood flow distributions and fluorescent or fluorescently tagged agents. A noncontact diffuse correlation tomography (ncDCT) device was firstly developed to recover flow by mechanically scanning a lens-based apparatus across the sample. The novel flow reconstruction technique and measuring boundary curvature were advanced in tandem. The establishment of CCD camera detection with a high sampling density and flow recovery by speckle contrast followed with the next instrument, termed speckle contrast diffuse correlation tomography (scDCT). In scDCT, an optical switch sequenced coherent near-infrared light into contact-based source fibers around the sample surface. A fully noncontact reflectance mode device finalized improvements by combining noncontact scDCT (nc_scDCT) and diffuse fluorescence tomography (DFT) techniques. In the combined device, a galvo-mirror directed polarized light to the sample surface. Filters and a cross polarizer in stackable tubes promoted extracting flow indices, absorption coefficients, and fluorescence concentrations (indocyanine green, ICG). The scDCT instrumentation was validated through detection of a cubical solid tissue-like phantom heterogeneity beneath a liquid phantom (background) surface where recovery of its center and dimensions agreed with the known values. The combined nc_scDCT/DFT identified both a cubical solid phantom and a tube of stepwise varying ICG concentration (absorption and fluorescence contrast). The tube imaged by nc_scDCT/DFT exhibited expected trends in absorption and fluorescence. The tube shape, orientation, and localization were recovered in general agreement with actuality. The flow heterogeneity localization was successfully extracted and its average relative flow values in agreement with previous studies. Increasing ICG concentrations induced notable disturbances in the tube region (≥ 0.25 μM/1 μM for 785 nm/830 nm) suggesting the graduating absorption (320% increase at 785 nm) introduced errors. We observe that 830 nm is lower in the ICG absorption spectrum and the correspondingly measured flow encountered less influence than 785 nm. From these results we anticipate the best practice in future studies to be utilization of a laser source with wavelength in a low region of the ICG absorption spectrum (e.g., 830 nm) or to only monitor flow prior to ICG injection or post-clearance. In addition, ncDCT was initially tested in a mouse tumor model to examine tumor size and averaged flow changes over a four-day interval. The next steps in forwarding the combined device development include the straightforward automation of data acquisition and filter rotation and applying it to in vivo tumor studies. These animal/clinical models may seek information such as simultaneous detection of tumor flow, fluorescence, and absorption contrasts or analyzing the relationship between variably sized fluorescently tagged nanoparticles and their tumor deposition relationship to flow distributions.

The high prevalence and mortality of cerebrovascular disease has led to the development of several methods to measure cerebral blood flow (CBF) in vivo. One of these, arterial spin labeling (ASL), is a quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique with the advantage that it is completely non-invasive. The quantification of CBF using ASL requires correction for a tissue specific parameter called the brain-blood partition coefficient (BBPC). Despite regional and inter-subject variability in BBPC, the current recommended implementation of ASL uses a constant assumed value of 0.9 mL/g for all regions of the brain, all subjects, and even all species. The purpose of this dissertation is 1) to apply ASL to a novel population to answer an important clinical question in the setting of Down syndrome, 2) to demonstrate proof of concept of a rapid technique to measure BBPC in mice to improve CBF quantification, and 3) to translate the correction method by applying it to a population of healthy canines using equipment and parameters suitable for use with humans. Chapter 2 reports the results of an ASL study of adults with Down syndrome (DS). This population is unique for their extremely high prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and very low prevalence of systemic cardiovascular risk factors like atherosclerosis and hypertension. This prompted the hypothesis that AD pathology would lead to the development of perfusion deficits in people with DS despite their healthy cardiovascular profile. The results demonstrate that perfusion is not compromised in DS participants until the middle of the 6th decade of life after which measured global CBF was reduced by 31% (p=0.029). There was also significantly higher prevalence of residual arterial signal in older participants with DS (60%) than younger DS participants (7%, p = 0.005) or non-DS controls (0%, p < 0.001). This delayed pattern of perfusion deficits in people with DS differs from observations in studies of sporadic AD suggesting that adults with DS benefit from an improved cardiovascular risk profile early in life. Chapter 3 introduces calibrated short TR recovery (CaSTRR) imaging as a rapid method to measure BBPC and its development in mice. This was prompted by the inability to account for potential changes in BBPC due to age, brain atrophy, or the accumulation of hydrophobic A-β plaques in the ASL study of people with DS in Chapter 2. The CaSTRR method reduces acquisition time of BBPC maps by 87% and measures a significantly higher BBPC in cortical gray matter (0.99±0.04 mL/g,) than white matter in the corpus callosum (0.93±0.05 mL/g, p=0.03). Furthermore, when CBF maps are corrected for BBPC, the contrast between gray and white matter regions of interest is improved by 14%. This demonstrates proof of concept for the CaSTRR technique. Chapter 4 describes the application of CaSTRR on healthy canines (age 5-8 years) using a 3T human MRI scanner. This represents a translation of the technique to a setting suitable for use with a human subject. Both CaSTRR and pCASL acquisitions were performed and further optimization brought the acquisition time of CaSTRR down to 4 minutes which is comparable to pCASL. Results again show higher BBPC in gray matter (0.83 ± 0.05 mL/g) than white matter (0.78 ± 0.04 mL/g, p = 0.007) with both values unaffected by age over the range studied. Also, gray matter CBF is negatively correlated with age (p = 0.003) and BBPC correction improved the contrast to noise ratio by 3.6% (95% confidence interval = 0.6 – 6.5%). In summary, the quantification of ASL can be improved using BBPC maps derived from the novel, rapid CaSTRR technique.

<p>The present thesis investigated family history and neurobiology of social phobia. Social phobia is a disabling disorder characterized by a marked fear of scrutiny in a variety of social situations. By using a validated questionnaire, study I related family history of excessive social anxiety to social phobia and avoidant personality disorder in epidemiologically identified probands in the Swedish general population. A two- to threefold increased relative risk of social anxiety was observed for both diagnostic groups. Thus, having an affected family member is associated with approximately a doubled risk for both social phobia and avoidant personality disorder.</p><p>The neurobiological studies explored situational and anticipatory elicited anxiety by means of positron emission tomography and 15O-water. Study II examined the functional neuroanatomy of social anxiety provocation in social phobics and a healthy comparison group during a public speaking task. Social phobia symptomatology was associated with higher neural activity in the amygdaloid complex, i.e. "the alarm system" of the brain, and lower activity in the prefrontal cortex. Study III examined the neural correlates of anxiety elicited by the anticipation of public speaking in individuals with social phobia. Anticipatory anxiety was accompanied by enhanced regional cerebral blood flow in the dorsolateral prefrontal and inferior temporal cortices as well as in the amygdaloid-hippocampal region. Brain blood flow was lower in the temporal pole and in the cerebellum. These results suggest that social phobia has a neuroanatomical basis in a highly sensitive fear network centered in the amygdaloid-hippocampal region and encompassing the prefrontal cortex.</p>

<p>Skeletal muscle accounts for the largest part of insulin-mediated glucose uptake. Insulin resistance (IR) is the main component of insulin resistance syndrome (IRS) and is an essential cause of a number of cardiovascular risk factors. This thesis investigates the relationships between muscle morphological characteristics and IRS because skeletal muscle is responsible for the majority of glucose uptake.</p><p>In this population-based sample of 70-year-old men, higher proportion of type I fibers as well as higher capillarization were related to higher insulin sensitivity and higher self-reported physical activity, which were related to a lower prevalence of type IIB fibers. Serum triglycerides, HDL cholesterol and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) activity were significantly related to fiber distribution and muscle capillarization and muscle morphology, in part, explained the association between these metabolic risk factors with physical activity level. BMI, glucose intolerance, PAI-1 activity, serum FFA concentration, proportion of type IIB fibers, HDL cholesterol level, drug treatment, physical activity level, and W/H ratio together explained 55% of the variation in the insulin sensitivity index. In addition, almost a twofold improvement of the correlations was seen after correcting for intraindividual variation. Glucose tolerant hypertensive subjects showed a lower capillary supply when compared to controls. Capillary density was negatively correlated to the increase in mean arterial pressure over two decades as well as to supine heart rate 20 years before. Interestingly, supine heart rate showed an independent inverse association to the percentage of type I fibers and a positive correlation to the percentage of type IIB muscle fibers. Capillary density and elevated serum free fatty (FFA) acid values were inversely associated with insulin-mediated blood flow and thus to endothelial dysfunction, which has been linked to IR. In fact, capillary density and serum FFA level together explained 71% of the variation in insulin-mediated leg blood flow changes.</p><p>In conclusion, these population-based findings support the observations that muscle morphological features and insulin sensitivity are related to each other. Muscle morphology might explain some of the beneficial impact of physical activity on the components of IRS. Accordingly, we suggest that alterations in muscle morphology should be considered as an essential part of the IRS.</p>

<p>The kidney is the major organ regulating the extracellular fluid volume and thereby the arterial blood pressure. The neuronal isoform of nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) in the kidney is predominantly located in the macula densa cells. These cells are sensors for both renin release and the tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism (TGF), which is an important regulator of the glomerular filtration rate and afferent arteriole tone. The aim of this investigation was to elucidate the function of nNOS in the macula densa cells.</p><p>Acute nNOS inhibition in rats resulted in an increased TGF responsiveness and unchanged blood pressure while, after chronic inhibition, the TGF was normalised and the blood pressure was elevated. The plasma renin concentration was elevated in rats on long-term low salt diet, but was not significantly affected by chronic nNOS inhibition. On the other hand, nNOS inhibition for four days increased plasma renin concentration in rats treated with a low salt diet. The renal vasculature of rats exhibits a diminished renal blood flow and intracellular Ca2+ response to angiotensin II after one week blockade of nNOS while angiotensin II’s effect on the renal blood flow was abolished after four weeks treatment. Acute extracellular volume expansion diminish the TGF sensitivity thus assisting the elimination of excess fluid but after acute addition of nNOS inhibitor to volume expanded rats the TGF sensitivity restored.</p><p>In conclusion, the results from the present study suggest an important role for nNOS in the macula densa cells in the regulation of the arterial blood pressure and the modulation of the TGF response.</p>

<p>The present thesis explored the neurobiological basis of three aspects of defense behaviors in humans. Positron emission tomography methodology was used, and changes in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) were measured as an index of neural activity. Firstly, brain function was studied in a group of patients suffering from combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder, using a symptom provocation paradigm with combat sounds in order to elicit fear. Exposure to auditory trauma reminders relative to neutral sounds was associated with increased rCBF in sensorimotor areas, the cerebellar vermis, the periaqueductal gray matter, and the right amygdala, whereas decreased activity was observed in the retrosplenial area of the posterior cingulate cortex. Secondly, the neural circuitry mediating the acoustic startle response and its habituation was studied in a group of healthy subjects. During acoustic startle stimulation as compared to a resting condition, increased rCBF was found in a medial posterior area of the pons corresponding to the nucleus reticularis pontis caudalis. As a result of startle repetition, altered activity was found in the cerebellum, pointing to its involvement in startle habituation. Thirdly, neural activity associated with startle modulation by phobic fear was studied in a group of subjects with specific animal phobias during exposure to pictures of their feared and non-feared objects, paired and unpaired with acoustic startle stimuli. As a result of startle potentiation, increased rCBF was found in the left amygdaloid-hippocampal region, and medially in the affective division of the anterior cingulate cortex. In conclusion, these results provide evidence for the involvement of limbic and paralimbic brain areas during fear provocation and fear-potentiated startle and for a similar neurocircuitry underlying startle in humans and animals.</p>

<p>Cardiac arrest results in immediate interruption of blood flow. The primary goal of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is to re-establish blood flow and hence oxygen delivery to the vital organs. This thesis describes different pharmacological interventions aimed at increasing cerebral blood flow during CPR and after restoration of spontaneous circulation (ROSC).</p><p>In a porcine model of cardiac arrest, continuous infusion of adrenaline generated higher cortical cerebral blood flow during CPR as compared to bolus administration of adrenaline. While bolus doses resulted in temporary peaks in cerebral blood flow, continuous infusion led to a sustained increase in this flow.</p><p>Administration of vasopressin resulted in higher cortical cerebral blood flow and a lower cerebral oxygen extraction ratio as compared to continuous infusion of adrenaline during CPR. In addition, vasopressin generated higher coronary perfusion pressure during CPR and increased the likelihood of achieving ROSC.</p><p>Parameters of coagulation and inflammation were measured after successful resuscitation from cardiac arrest. Immediately after ROSC, thrombin-antithrombin complex, a marker of thrombin generation, was elevated and eicosanoid levels were increased, indicating activation of coagulation and inflammation after ROSC. The thrombin generation was accompanied by a reduction in antithrombin. In addition, there was substantial haemoconcentration in the initial period after ROSC.</p><p>By administration of antithrombin during CPR, supraphysiological levels of antithrombin were achieved. However, antithrombin administration did not increase cerebral circulation or reduce reperfusion injury, as measured by cortical cerebral blood flow, cerebral oxygen extraction and levels of eicosanoids, after ROSC. </p><p>In a clinical study, the adrenaline dose interval was found to be longer than recommended in the majority of cases of cardiac arrest. Thus, the adherence to recommended guidelines regarding the adrenaline dose interval seems to be poor. </p>