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[pt] Sistemas líquido-líquido imiscíveis são amplamente encontrados na natureza e em processos industriais, abrangendo uma variedade de aplicações, incluindo adesão bacteriana, formação de biofilme, emulsificação, administração de medicamentos, injeção de água na recuperação de petróleo e remediação de solventes clorados em águas subterrâneas. Esses sistemas ocorrem quando dois líquidos não podem formar uma mistura homogênea devido a diferenças em suas propriedades moleculares, como polaridade ou densidade. Como resultado, os líquidos mantêm uma interface onde entram em contato, mas não se misturam, formando camadas distintas. Esse comportamento é influenciado pela tensão interfacial, uma força que minimiza a área de contato entre os dois líquidos e, assim, exerce uma influência significativa na estabilidade e no comportamento do sistema. Surfactantes, ou agentes tenso ativos (SSAs), são frequentemente usados para controlar as propriedades dessas interfaces. Esses compostos reduzem significativamente a tensão interfacial entre dois líquidos imiscíveis. Este estudo visa medir experimentalmente a tensão interfacial em um sistema líquido-líquido por meio de um método dinâmico in situ utilizando um reômetro equipado com sistema de microscopia. Este equipamento permite a observação e medição em tempo real do comportamento da interface dos fluidos sob várias condições. Dessa forma, a tensão interfacial é determinada com base nas teorias existentes de deformação de gotas, como o método de retração de gotas deformadas (DDRM). Investigamos o comportamento da tensão interfacial em um sistema composto por uma mistura de 95 por cento empeso de polidimetilsiloxano (PDMS) e hexadecano, uma solução de 80 por cento empeso de glicerol em água deionizada, e o surfactante não iônico lipofílico Twenn 80, com concentrações variando de 0,0005 por cento a 0,0500 por cento em peso. / [en] Immiscible liquid-liquid systems are widely found in nature and industrial processes, covering a variety of applications, including bacterial adhesion, biofilm formation, emulsification, drug delivery, water flooding in oil recovery, and remediation of chlorinated solvents in groundwater. These systems occur when two liquids cannot form a homogeneous mixture due to differences in their molecular properties, such as polarity or density. As a result, the liquids maintain an interface where they come into contact but do not mix, forming distinct layers. This behaviour is influenced by interfacial tension, a force that minimises the contact area between the two liquids and thus exerts a significant influence on the stability and behaviour of the system. Surfactants, or surface-active agents (SSAs), are often used to manage and manipulate the properties of these interfaces. These compounds significantly reduce the interfacial tension between two immiscible liquids. This study aims to experimentally measure the interfacial tension in a liquid-liquid system through a dynamic in situ method using the Rheo-Microscopy apparatus. This equipment allows real-time observation and measurement of fluid interface behaviour under various conditions. In this way, interfacial tension is determined based on existing drop deformation theories, such as the deformed drop retraction method (DDRM). We investigated the interfacial tension behaviour in a system composed of a 95 wt.percent polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) hexadecane mixture, an 80 wt.percent glycerol solution in deionized water, and the lipophilic non-ionic surfactant Tween 80, with concentrations ranging from 0.0005 to 0.0500 wt.percent.

Seit mehr als einem Jahrhundert ist ein wachsendes wissenschaftliches Interesse an Tropfen und den Vorgängen bei deren Aufprall auf die verschiedensten Substrate zu verzeichnen, wohl auch durch die Fotografien von Worthington (1908) ausgelöst. Inzwischen wurden viele Erkenntnisse durch große Fortschritte bei der experimentellen Untersuchung (z.B. mittels Hochgeschwindigkeitsaufnahmen) und durch theoretische und computergestützte Untersuchung (z.B. durch skalenfreie und numerische Modellierung) gewonnen. Trotzdem bleibt durch die Vielfältigkeit und Komplexität der Phänomene während des Tropfenaufpralls sowie wegen der ständig erweiterten Anwendungsbereiche dieses Forschungsgebiet hochaktuell. Insbesondere sehr kleine und gleichzeitig sehr schnelle Tropfen (Tropfendurchmesser 10µm bis 100µm, Tropfengeschwindigkeit 10m/s bis 100m/s) kommen in vielen modernen Anwendungen vor (z.B. Verbrennungsmotoren, Tintenstrahldrucker, Reinigung von Oberflächen). In diesem wichtigen, aber für Untersuchungen schwer zugänglichen Parameterbereich gibt es immer noch offene Fragen. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich daher mit diesen schnellen Mikrotropfen in Bezug auf ihre Herstellung und den Aufprallvorgang auf ein festes, trockenes oder benetztes Substrat. Zunächst wird eine Methode zur Erzeugung eines Hochgeschwindigkeitssprays realisiert, welche auf dem durch Ultraschall gesteuerten Plateau-Rayleigh-Zerfall eines Flüssigkeitsstrahls beruht. Sie ermöglicht es, sowohl Tropfengröße als auch –geschwindigkeit präzise und mit hoher Reproduzierbarkeit über den gesamten oben angegebenen Parameterbereich einzustellen. Durch gezielte Manipulation eines Einzeltropfens durch elektrische Felder wird anschließend der Tropfenaufprall auf Substrate unterschiedlicher Benetzbarkeit mit sehr hoher zeitlicher Auflösung (ca. 100 Mio. Bilder pro Sekunde) bei gleichzeitig hoher räumlicher Auflösung (< 1µm) untersucht. Es zeigt sich, dass bekannte Modelle für langsamere und größere Tropfen im Millimeterbereich auch für schnelle Mikrotropfen Gültigkeit behalten. Somit ist bei gleichen dimensionslosen Kennzahlen (z.B. Reynolds-Zahl, Weber-Zahl, Ohnesorge-Zahl) eine skalenfreie Beschreibung des Tropfenaufpralls möglich. Schließlich wird die Methode zur Tropfenerzeugung auf einen für Anwendungen in der Reinigung relevanten Fall übertragen. Hierbei geht es um den Tropfenaufprall auf ein von einem Flüssigkeitsfilm überströmten Substrat. Es werden die während des Auftreffvorgangs auftretenden Geschwindigkeiten in der sich bildenden radialen Strömung in Abhängigkeit von verschiedenen Prozessparametern bestimmt. Aus den Ergebnissen lassen sich Aussagen über die zu erwartende Reinigungswirkung durch derartige Tropfen und den Einfluss der Prozessparameter treffen.

The present research is an experimental investigation of the atomization of a superheated pressurized liquid jet that is exposed to the ambient pressure due to a sudden depressurization. This phenomena is called flashing and occurs in several industrial environments.<p><p>Liquid flashing phenomena holds an interest in many areas of science and engineering. Typical examples one can mention: a) the accidental release of flammable and toxic pressure-liquefied gases in chemical and nuclear industry; the failure of a vessel or pipe in the form of a small hole results in the formation of a two-phase jet containing a mixture of liquid droplets and vapor, b) atomisation improvement in the fuel injector technology, c) flashing mechanism occurrence in expansion devices of refrigerator cycles etc. The interest in flashing events is especially true in the safety field where any unexpected event is undesirable. In case of an accident, flammable or toxic gas clouds are anticipated in close regions of the release because of the sudden phase change .Due to the non-equilibrium nature of the flow in these near field regions, conducting accurate data measurements for droplet size and velocity is a challenging task resulting in scarce data in the very close area.<p><p>This research has been carried out at the von Karman Institute (VKI) within the 5th framework of European Commission to fulfill the goal of understanding of source processes in flashing liquids in accidental releases. The program is carried out under name of FLIE (Flashing Liquids in Industrial Environments)(Contract no: EVG1-CT-2000-00025). The specific issues that are presented in this thesis study are the following:a) a comprehensive state of art of the jet break up patterns, spray characteristics and studies related to flashing phenomena; b)flashing jet breakup patterns and accurate characterization of the atomized jet such as droplet diameter size, velocity and temperature evolution through carefully designed laboratory-scale experiments; c) the influence of the initial storage conditions on the final atomized jet; d) a physical model on the droplet transformation and rapid evaporation in aerosol jets.<p><p>In order to characterize the atomization of the superheated liquid jet, laser-based optical techniques like Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV), Phase Doppler Anemometry (PDA) are used to obtain information for particle diameter and velocity evolution at various axial and radial distances. Moreover, a high-speed video photography presents the possibility to understand the break-up pattern changes of the simulating liquid namely R-134A jet in function of driving pressure, superheat and discharge nozzle characteristics. Global temperature measurements with an intrusive technique such as thermocouples, non-intrusive measurements with Infrared Thermography are performed. Cases for different initial pressures, temperatures, orifice diameters and length-to-diameter ratios are studied. The break-up patterns, the evolution of the mean droplet size, velocity, RMS, turbulence<p>intensity and temperature along the radial and axial directions are presented in function of initial parameters. Highly populated drop size and velocity count distributions are provided. Among the initial storage conditions, superheat effect is found to be very important in providing small droplets. A 1-D analytical rapid evaporation model is developed in order to explain the strong temperature decrease during the measurements. A sensitivity analysis of this model is provided.<p> / Doctorat en sciences appliquées / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

<p>Free surface flows, characterized by a deformable interface between two immiscible fluids or between a liquid and a gas, play a pivotal role in numerous natural phenomena and industrial processes. The fluid-fluid interface dynamics, governed by the complex interplay of forces such as inertia, capillary force, viscous force, and possibly elastic force, significantly influence the behavior of the fluids involved. Examples of free surface flows can be observed in everyday situations, such as droplet formation from a faucet, propagation and breaking of ocean waves, and tear films that coat the eye. An in-depth understanding of free surface flows and fluid-fluid interface dynamics has extensive implications for optimizing applications like inkjet printing, coating, spraying, and droplet formation while providing insights into the intricate behavior of natural fluid systems. Most of these applications, except for coating, involve abrupt and catastrophic topological changes of interfaces present in processes such as drop breakup, sheet rupture, and drop impact, where small droplets form from liquid sheets or filaments.</p> <p>This thesis examines the dynamics of contracting liquid filaments through computational means. Previous computational simulations have assumed that initially the fluid within the filament is quiescent which, however, may not typically be the case in practical applications. Here, the effect of a realistic, non-zero initial velocity profile is considered with the hypothesis that the fact that the fluid is already in motion when it starts to contract may result in significant alterations in the filament’s final fate vis-a-vis whether it breaks up into multiple small droplets or contracts into a sphere as its ends retract toward each other. The transient system of governing equations, the three-dimensional but axisymmetric (3DA) Navier-Stokes and continuity equations subjected to interfacial boundary conditions, are solved using rigorous and robust numerical algorithms in both fully 3DA and one-dimensional (1D) settings using the Galerkin finite element (GFEM) method. The simulation results are then used to construct comprehensive phase diagrams to delineate regions where filaments break up into smaller droplets from those where filaments contract to spheres without breakup.</p> <p>Polymer additives are often present in practical applications involving filament contraction and breakup. The presence of polymer molecules in an otherwise Newtonian solvent gives rise to non-Newtonian rheology. In this thesis, the dynamics of filaments containing polymer additives are analyzed using a 1D algorithm that is developed specifically for simulating viscoelastic free surface flows where the fluid’s rheology is described by the oft-used Oldroyd-B model. In real-world applications, filaments produced from nozzles are expected to be prestressed at the instant when they are created and begin to contract. It is demonstrated that the retraction velocity of tips of highly viscous, prestressed filaments is significantly increased compared to filaments in which the polymer molecules are initially relaxed and Newtonian filaments. This enhancement is explained by examining the value of f σ: D (σ: Elastic stress; D: Rate-of-strain tensor), which can be positive or negative. This quantity is positive when the flow does work on the polymer molecules but negative when the molecules do work on the flow, i.e., when elastic recoiling or unloading takes place. In prestressed filaments, elastic unloading takes place because σ: D < 0. The elastic stresses work by pulling the fluid in axially and pushing it out radially, thereby drastically increasing the tip velocity.  However, this enhancement in contraction velocity is not observed in low to intermediate viscosity prestressed filaments and whose Newtonian counterparts typically experience end-pinching. It has been established by others that end-pinching can be precluded in either filaments of intermediate viscosity or surfactant-laden filaments of low viscosity through a process known as escape from end-pinching. In this study, we demonstrate that a similar escape can also occur in prestressed viscoelastic filaments of low-to-intermediate viscosity, as revealed by one-dimensional numerical simulations and rationalized by examining when and where the elastic recoil takes place.</p> <p>Beyond cylindrical filaments, thin liquid films or planar liquid sheets are also prevalent in atomization, curtain coating, and other processes where liquid sheet stability has been a subject of extensive research. Numerous authors have examined wave formation and growth leading to sheet breakup. Free liquid films or sheets without edges or caps at their two ends, which typically have two free surfaces and are surrounded by air or sometimes another liquid, can destabilize and rupture due to intermolecular van der Waals attractive forces, despite the stabilizing influence of surface tension. In this thesis, the dynamics of contracting free films or sheets with caps---two-dimensional (2D) drops---of Newtonian fluids is examined without considering van der Waals forces to confirm or refute the hypothesis that such systems can rupture due to finite-amplitude perturbations even in the absence of intermolecular forces. In particular, both two-dimensional and one-dimensional high-accuracy simulations are employed to demonstrate that unlike inviscid 2D drops that can rupture in the absence of van der Waals forces, 2D drops or sheets can escape from pinch-off due to the action of viscous forces which are present in real systems no matter how small their viscosity. The reopening of the interface and escape from pinch-off in 2D drops and sheets are explained by demonstrating the key role played by vorticity. New power-law relations or scaling laws are obtained as a function of Ohnesorge number (ratio of viscous to the square root of the product of inertial and capillary forces) for the value of the minimum film thickness for which 2D drops or sheets stop thinning and after which the interface begins to reopen. Simple yet powerful arguments are presented rationalizing these scaling laws. It is expected that these power-law relations should be of great interest to experimentalists who study such phenomena by high-speed visualization experiments.</p> <p>Some of the motivation for this thesis research comes from crop spraying applications in which achieving zero or negligible drift is highly desirable. To further the understanding of fluid mechanics underpinning current and future drift reduction technologies, a simplified experimental setup is adopted to generate liquid sheets and analyze their disintegration into droplets. This new setup is both simpler and more universal than commonly utilized experimental systems that use single or multiple nozzles to generate liquid sheets and spray droplets from the disintegration of free liquid films. In the current experiments, droplets of test fluids are made to collide with or impact the top planar surface of a solid cylinder or rod. A series of MATLAB codes are developed and employed to extract droplet size distributions from images that are obtained from high-speed visualization experiments. The experimental setup and the means of data analysis are then used to probe the effect of fluid properties on the dynamics of sheet disintegration and droplet size distributions. It is hoped that future researchers will be able to combine what has been done in this thesis by simulations and in this chapter via experimental observations to develop an improved mechanistic understanding of spray formation.</p>

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[ES] El principal desafío en los motores turbina de gas empleados en aviación reside en aumentar la eficiencia del ciclo termodinámico manteniendo las emisiones contaminantes por debajo de las rigurosas restricciones. Ésto ha conllevado la necesidad de diseñar nuevas estrategias de inyección/combustión que operan en puntos de operación peligrosos por su cercanía al límite inferior de apagado de llama. En este contexto, el concepto Lean Direct Injection (LDI) ha emergido como una tecnología prometedora a la hora de reducir los óxidos de nitrógeno (NOx) emitidos por las plantas propulsoras de los aviones de nueva generación. En este contexto, la presente tesis tiene como objetivos contribuir al conocimiento de los mecanismos físicos que rigen el comportamiento de un quemador LDI y proporcionar herramientas de análisis para una profunda caracterización de las complejas estructuras de flujo de turbulento generadas en el interior de la cámara de combustión. Para ello, se ha desarrollado una metodología numérica basada en CFD capaz de modelar el flujo bifásico no reactivo en el interior de un quemador LDI académico mediante enfoques de turbulencia U-RANS y LES en un marco Euleriano-Lagrangiano. La resolución numérica de este problema multi-escala se aborda mediante la descripción completa del flujo a lo largo de todos los elementos que constituyen la maqueta experimental, incluyendo su paso por el swirler y entrada a la cámara de combustión. Ésto se lleva a cabo través de dos códigos CFD que involucran dos estrategias de mallado diferentes: una basada en algoritmos de generación y refinamiento automático de la malla (AMR) a través de CONVERGE y otra técnica de mallado estático más tradicional mediante OpenFOAM. Por un lado, se ha definido una metodología para obtener una estrategia de mallado óptima mediante el uso del AMR y se han explotado sus beneficios frente a los enfoques tradicionales de malla estática. De esta forma, se ha demostrado que la aplicabilidad de las herramientas de control de malla disponibles en CONVERGE como el refinamiento fijo (fixed embedding) y el AMR son una opción muy interesante para afrontar este tipo de problemas multi-escala. Los resultados destacan una optimización del uso de los recursos computacionales y una mayor precisión en las simulaciones realizadas con la metodología presentada. Por otro lado, el uso de herramientas CFD se ha combinado con la aplicación de técnicas de descomposición modal avanzadas (Proper Orthogonal Decomposition and Dynamic Mode Decomposition). La identificación numérica de los principales modos acústicos en la cámara de combustión ha demostrado el potencial de estas herramientas al permitir caracterizar las estructuras de flujo coherentes generadas como consecuencia de la rotura de los vórtices (VBB) y de los chorros fuertemente torbellinados presentes en el quemador LDI. Además, la implementación de estos procedimientos matemáticos ha permitido tanto recuperar información sobre las características de la dinámica de flujo como proporcionar un enfoque sistemático para identificar los principales mecanismos que sustentan las inestabilidades en la cámara de combustión. Finalmente, la metodología validada ha sido explotada a través de un Diseño de Experimentos (DoE) para cuantificar la influencia de los factores críticos de diseño en el flujo no reactivo. De esta manera, se ha evaluado la contribución individual de algunos parámetros funcionales (el número de palas del swirler, el ángulo de dichas palas, el ancho de la cámara de combustión y la posición axial del orificio del inyector) en los patrones del campo fluido, la distribución del tamaño de gotas del combustible líquido y la aparición de inestabilidades en la cámara de combustión a través de una matriz ortogonal L9 de Taguchi. Este estudio estadístico supone un punto de partida para posteriores estudios de inyección, atomización y combus / [CA] El principal desafiament als motors turbina de gas utilitzats a la aviació resideix en augmentar l'eficiència del cicle termodinàmic mantenint les emissions contaminants per davall de les rigoroses restriccions. Aquest fet comporta la necessitat de dissenyar noves estratègies d'injecció/combustió que radiquen en punts d'operació perillosos per la seva aproximació al límit inferior d'apagat de flama. En aquest context, el concepte Lean Direct Injection (LDI) sorgeix com a eina innovadora a l'hora de reduir els òxids de nitrogen (NOx) emesos per les plantes propulsores dels avions de nova generació. Sota aquest context, aquesta tesis té com a objectius contribuir al coneixement dels mecanismes físics que regeixen el comportament d'un cremador LDI i proporcionar ferramentes d'anàlisi per a una profunda caracterització de les complexes estructures de flux turbulent generades a l'interior de la càmera de combustió. Per tal de dur-ho a terme s'ha desenvolupat una metodología numèrica basada en CFD capaç de modelar el flux bifàsic no reactiu a l'interior d'un cremador LDI acadèmic mitjançant els enfocaments de turbulència U-RANS i LES en un marc Eulerià-Lagrangià. La resolució numèrica d'aquest problema multiescala s'aborda mitjançant la resolució completa del flux al llarg de tots els elements que constitueixen la maqueta experimental, incloent el seu pas pel swirler i l'entrada a la càmera de combustió. Açò es duu a terme a través de dos codis CFD que involucren estratègies de mallat diferents: una basada en la generación automàtica de la malla i en l'algoritme de refinament adaptatiu (AMR) amb CONVERGE i l'altra que es basa en una tècnica de mallat estàtic més tradicional amb OpenFOAM. D'una banda, s'ha definit una metodologia per tal d'obtindre una estrategia de mallat òptima mitjançant l'ús de l'AMR i s'han explotat els seus beneficis front als enfocaments tradicionals de malla estàtica. D'aquesta forma, s'ha demostrat que l'aplicabilitat de les ferramente de control de malla disponibles en CONVERGE com el refinament fixe (fixed embedding) i l'AMR són una opció molt interessant per tal d'afrontar aquest tipus de problemes multiescala. Els resultats destaquen una optimització de l'ús dels recursos computacionals i una major precisió en les simulacions realitzades amb la metodologia presentada. D'altra banda, l'ús d'eines CFD s'ha combinat amb l'aplicació de tècniques de descomposició modal avançades (Proper Orthogonal Decomposition and Dynamic Mode Decomposition). La identificació numèrica dels principals modes acústics a la càmera de combustió ha demostrat el potencial d'aquestes ferramentes al permetre caracteritzar les estructures de flux coherents generades com a conseqüència del trencament dels vòrtex (VBB) i dels raigs fortament arremolinats presents al cremador LDI. A més, la implantació d'estos procediments matemàtics ha permès recuperar informació sobre les característiques de la dinàmica del flux i proporcionar un enfocament sistemàtic per tal d'identificar els principals mecanismes que sustenten les inestabilitats a la càmera de combustió. Finalment, la metodologia validada ha sigut explotada a traves d'un Diseny d'Experiments (DoE) per tal de quantificar la influència dels factors crítics de disseny en el flux no reactiu. D'aquesta manera, s'ha avaluat la contribución individual d'alguns paràmetres funcionals (el nombre de pales del swirler, l'angle de les pales, l'amplada de la càmera de combustió i la posició axial de l'orifici de l'injector) en els patrons del camp fluid, la distribució de la mida de gotes del combustible líquid i l'aparició d'inestabilitats en la càmera de combustió mitjançant una matriu ortogonal L9 de Taguchi. Aquest estudi estadístic és un bon punt de partida per a futurs estudis de injecció, atomització i combustió en cremadors LDI. / [EN] Aeronautical gas turbine engines present the main challenge of increasing the efficiency of the cycle while keeping the pollutant emissions below stringent restrictions. This has led to the design of new injection-combustion strategies working on more risky and problematic operating points such as those close to the lean extinction limit. In this context, the Lean Direct Injection (LDI) concept has emerged as a promising technology to reduce oxides of nitrogen (NOx) for next-generation aircraft power plants In this context, this thesis aims at contributing to the knowledge of the governing physical mechanisms within an LDI burner and to provide analysis tools for a deep characterisation of such complex flows. In order to do so, a numerical CFD methodology capable of reliably modelling the 2-phase nonreacting flow in an academic LDI burner has been developed in an Eulerian-Lagrangian framework, using the U-RANS and LES turbulence approaches. The LDI combustor taken as a reference to carry out the investigation is the laboratory-scale swirled-stabilised CORIA Spray Burner. The multi-scale problem is addressed by solving the complete inlet flow path through the swirl vanes and the combustor through two different CFD codes involving two different meshing strategies: an automatic mesh generation with adaptive mesh refinement (AMR) algorithm through CONVERGE and a more traditional static meshing technique in OpenFOAM. On the one hand, a methodology to obtain an optimal mesh strategy using AMR has been defined, and its benefits against traditional fixed mesh approaches have been exploited. In this way, the applicability of grid control tools available in CONVERGE such as fixed embedding and AMR has been demonstrated to be an interesting option to face this type of multi-scale problem. The results highlight an optimisation of the use of the computational resources and better accuracy in the simulations carried out with the presented methodology. On the other hand, the use of CFD tools has been combined with the application of systematic advanced modal decomposition techniques (i.e., Proper Orthogonal Decomposition and Dynamic Mode Decomposition). The numerical identification of the main acoustic modes in the chamber have proved their potential when studying the characteristics of the most powerful coherent flow structures of strongly swirled jets in a LDI burner undergoing vortex breakdown (VBB). Besides, the implementation of these mathematical procedures has allowed both retrieving information about the flow dynamics features and providing a systematic approach to identify the main mechanisms that sustain instabilities in the combustor. Last, this analysis has also allowed identifying some key features of swirl spray systems such as the complex pulsating, intermittent and cyclical spatial patterns related to the Precessing Vortex Core (PVC). Finally, the validated methodology is exploited through a Design of Experiments (DoE) to quantify the influence of critical design factors on the non-reacting flow. In this way, the individual contribution of some functional parameters (namely the number of swirler vanes, the swirler vane angle, the combustion chamber width and the axial position of the nozzle tip) into both the flow field pattern, the spray size distribution and the occurrence of instabilities in the combustion chamber are evaluated throughout a Taguchi's orthogonal array L9. Such a statistical study has supposed a good starting point for subsequent studies of injection, atomisation and combustion on LDI burners. / Belmar Gil, M. (2020). Computational study on the non-reacting flow in Lean Direct Injection gas turbine combustors through Eulerian-Lagrangian Large-Eddy Simulations [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/159882