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Hypothalamic pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons are canonically recognized as key anorexigenic neurons in the melanocortin circuit with a role in satiety and energy homeostasis. However, optogenetic stimulation does not decrease feeding behavior during ad-lib fed animals in a physiologically relevant manner. This suggests that there are possible nuances in their activity dynamics such as timing (when a neuron is active in relation to a specific behavior), direction (inhibition or excitation), or specificity (if only certain subgroups of POMC neurons are active). POMC neurons in the hypothalamus are a molecularly diverse population, which suggests that they would display diverse neuronal activity responses during various ingestive behaviors. Currently, single-cell recordings of hypothalamic POMC neurons has never been investigated in behaving animals. Using one-photon microendoscopic calcium imaging, we characterized the neuronal activity dynamics of individual hypothalamic neurons during a broad range of feeding behaviors prior to, during, and after ingestion, during different metabolic states in mice. We show that hypothalamic POMC neurons are highly engaged during food-seeking, consumption of different nutrients, and post-ingestive responses related to circulating molecules relaying metabolic information. Individual hypothalamic POMC neurons show diverging responses in terms of valence, duration, magnitude, and timing to different feeding behaviors that are responsive to intercurrent metabolic status. Our results suggest that hypothalamic POMC neurons may integrate moment-to-moment metabolic status with feeding and food-seeking actions at short- and long-term scales to implement behaviors and autonomic responses to coordinate complex components of energy homeostasis.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第25150号 / 理博第5057号 / 京都大学大学院理学研究科生物科学専攻 / (主査)准教授 大石 高生, 教授 中村 克樹, 教授 明里 宏文 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

From a physical perspective biological cells consist of active soft matter that exist in a thermodynamic state far from equilibrium. Not only in muscles but also during cell proliferation, wound healing, embryonic development, and many other physiological tasks, generation of forces on the scale of whole cells is required. To date, cellular contractions have been ascribed to adhesion dependent processes such as myosin driven stress fiber formation and the development of focal adhesion complexes. In this thesis it is shown for the first time that contractions can occur independently of focal adhesions in single suspended cells. To measure mechanical properties of suspended cells the Optical Stretcher – a dualbeam laser trap – was used with phase contrast video microscopy which allowed to extract the deformation of the cell for every single frame. For fluorescence imaging confocal laser scanning microscopy was employed. The ratio of the fluorescence of a temperature sensitive and a temperature insensitive rhodamine dye was utilized to determine the temperatures inside the optical trap during and after Optical Stretching. The rise in temperature at a measuring power of 0.7W turned out to be enough to open a temperature sensitive ion channel transfected into an epithelial cell line. In this way a massive Ca2+ influx was triggered during the Optical Stretcher experiment. A new setup combining Optical Stretching and confocal laser scanning microscopy allowed fluorescence imaging of these Ca2+ signals while the cells were deformed by optically induced surface forces, showing that the Ca2+ influx could be manipulated with adequate drugs. This model system was then employed to investigate the influence of Ca2+ on the observed contractions, revealing that they are partially triggered by Ca2+. A phenomenological mathematical model based on the fundamental constitutive equation for linear viscoelastic materials extended by a term accounting for active contractions allowed to quantify the activity of the measured cells. The skewness and the median of the strain distributions were shown to depend on the activity of the cells. The introduced model reveals that even in measurements, that seemingly are describable by passive viscoelasticity, active contractililty might be superimposed. Ignoring this effect will lead to erroneous material properties and misinterpretation of the data. Taken together, the findings presented in this thesis demonstrate that active processes are an essential part of cellular mechanics and cells can contract even independently of adhesions. The results provide a method that allows to quantify active contractions of suspended cells. As the proposed model is not based on specific assumptions on force generating processes, it paves the way for a thorough investigation of different influences, such as cytoskeletal structures and intra-cellular signaling processes, to cellular contractions. The results present an important contribution for better mechanical classification of cells in future research with possible implications for medical diagnosis and therapy.

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Les cellules ciliées internes (CCI) sont les cellules sensorielles de l'organe de l'audition, elles transforment les ondes sonores en messages nerveux. Avant l’entrée en fonction de la cochlée, les CCI émettent spontanément des potentiels d’action (PA) calciques, ce qui active la voie auditive ascendante et assure le développement de l’axe tonotopique, à savoir la représentation du codage en fréquence, dans chaque relais de la voie auditive. Le profil et les mécanismes à l’origine des PA des CCI sont fortement débattus. Nous nous sommes donc attachés à étudier l’empreinte développementale des cellules sensorielles, c'est à dire déterminer le profil et les mécanismes à l’origine de leur activité.Après avoir incubé l’épithélium neuro-sensoriel avec la sonde calcique Fura2-AM, nous avons observé des vagues calciques se propageant le long des cellules de soutien et des cellules sensorielles. Plus précisément, l’activité des cellules ciliées se caractérisait par des élévations transitoires de calcium (pics calciques) à intervalles de temps réguliers. Nous avons ensuite démontré que les pics calciques des CCI correspondaient bien à des bouffées de PA en mesurant simultanément les oscillations calciques et l’émission de PA en patch-clamp. La fréquence, la durée et la distribution temporelle des pics calciques des CCI étaient en grande partie invariantes le long de l’axe base-apex de la cochlée. Enfin, les cellules voisines montraient une activité fortement synchrone à l’inverse des cellules spatialement éloignées. Ces résultats indiquent donc que l’activité des CCI est majoritairement identique le long de l’axe tonotopique de la cochlée.Nous nous sommes ensuite intéressés au mécanisme responsable de l’activité spontanée, la dépendance à l’ATP. L’incubation d’apyrase, une ecto-nucléotidase, entraine une diminution de l’activité des cellules de soutien, à savoir une réduction de l’aire et de la vitesse de propagation des vagues calciques. En revanche, l'activité des CCI n'est pas altérée par la déplétion d’ATP. Ces résultats suggèrent 2 mécanismes distincts, le premier ATP-dépendant et le second ATP-indépendant dans les cellules de soutien et sensorielles, respectivement.L’ensemble de ces résultats indique que la maturation des centres supérieurs serait déterminée par l’activation synchrone d’un nombre limité de cellules sensorielles. / During development, the sensory cells of the cochlea, the inner hair cells (IHCs), fire spontaneous calcium action potentials. This spontaneous spiking activity at the pre-hearing stage allows the IHCs to automatically stimulate the auditory nerve fibers and hence, ensures the proper shaping of the tonotopic organization along the ascending auditory pathway. Spontaneous spiking patterns may depend on the IHCs position on the cochlea (the tonotopic axis). Those patterns may also rely on ATP secretion from neighboring supporting cells. In this study, we used calcium imaging in the immature neuro-sensory epithelium of the cochlea, the Kölliker´s organ, to gain insights in the IHCs spiking activity. After loading the Kölliker´s organ with the calcium dye fura-2 AM, propagation of spontaneous calcium waves was readily observed across supporting and sensory cells. Both basal and apical IHCs were characterized by similar spontaneous calcium transients interspaced with silent periods, reminiscent of bursts of action potential recorded in patch-clamp. In addition, neighboring cells show a strong degree of synchronous activity. Incubation with apyrase, which hydrolyzes ATP, prevents the spontaneous calcium increase that propagates across the supporting cells within the Kölliker's organ. However, it leaves the spontaneous calcium transients in IHCs mostly unaffected. All these results show that the tonotopic map refinement in higher auditory centers comes from a coordinated activity of neighboring sensory cells, whose activity seems to be independent of ATP

Dans le cervelet, l’interaction entre l’activité des fibres parallèles (FPs) et celle de la fibre grimpante (FG), les deux principaux inputs excitateurs des neurones de Purkinje (NPs), engendre des signaux calciques supra-linéaires procurant des informations sur leur activité concomitante. Ce phénomène déclenche des mécanismes synaptiques qui induisent la dépression à court- ou à long-terme des synapses FP-NPs. L’activation des FPs génère des signaux calciques locaux confinés aux épines activées tandis que l’activation de la FG génère une dépolarisation qui se propage passivement dans les dendrites. Cette dépolarisation transitoire qui n’est pas locale joue un rôle important dans la régulation de la signalisation locale des FPs et leur plasticité. L’étude menée durant ma thèse s’est focalisée sur deux principaux points : les canaux dendritiques des NPs activés par la dépolarisation transitoire générée par l’activation de la FG et les mécanismes responsables de la génération des signaux dendritiques supra-linéaires associés à l’activité concomitante des FPs et de la FG. Les résultats reportés ici ont été obtenus en utilisant des méthodes optiques récemment développés.Nous avons caractérisé le comportement des canaux ioniques dendritiques qui sont activés par la dépolarisation dendritique générés par l’activation de la FG. Nous avons découvert que deux différents groupes de canaux ioniques sont sélectivement activés selon le potentiel membranaire initial. En effet, quand les dendrites sont hyperpolarisées, les CF-EPSPs activent principalement des canaux calciques voltage-dépendant (CCVDs) de type T, des canaux SK et des canaux potassiques voltage-dépendant (CPVDs) de type A. Ces derniers maintiennent le potentiel membranaire en dessous de ~0 mV. En revanche, quand les dendrites sont dépolarisées, les CCVDs de type T et les CPVDs de type A s’inactivent complètement et les CF-EPSPs activent des CCVDs de type P/Q, des CPVDs et des canaux BK. L’activation de cet ensemble de canaux déclenche des spikes calciques. Notamment, nous avons établi l’importance des CPVDs de type A dans le control du deuxième ensemble de canaux. En effet, ils limitent l’activation des CCVDs de type P/Q et les canaux potassiques associés empêchant le déclenchement des spikes calciques.Nous avons démontré que l’activation occurrente de la FG et des FPs induit deux différents types de signaux calciques supra-linéaires. L’induction de l’un ou de l’autre dépend du temps entre l’activation des deux inputs, qui est aussi un principal déterminant des mécanismes impliqués dans la génération des ces signaux calciques. Nous avons trouvé que quand les CF-EPSPs se produisent à de courts délais après la fin du burst des FPs, les signaux calciques supra-linéaires associés sont indépendant de l’activation des mGluR1 et sont générés par l’effet combiné de deux mécanismes : l’augmentation du flux calcique via les CCVD de type P/Q activés par la dépolarisation membranaire médiée par l’activation de FPs inactivant les CPVDs de type A; et la saturation transitoire des buffers calciques endogènes durant le burst des PF-EPSPs amplifiant les concentrations du Ca2+ libre. Quand les CF-EPSPs se produisent à de longs délais après la fin du burst des PF-EPSPs, les signaux calciques supra-linéaires associés dépendent de l’activation des mGluR1 et n’impliquent aucun des mécanismes précédents. Dans ce cas, nous avons démontré que les signaux calciques supra-linéaires sont corrélés avec l’augmentation du flux calcique via les conductances cationiques associées à l’activation des mGluR1.Les résultats reportés ici ont avancé notre compréhension sur la génération des signaux calciques supra-linéaires associés à l’activité concomitante des PFs et de la FGs ainsi les mécanismes qui y sont impliqués. Néanmoins, nous n’avons pas pu procurer une réponse définitive sur la nature du flux calcique médiant les signaux calciques supra-linéaires dépendant de l’activation des mGluR1s. / In the cerebellum, the interplay between PFs and CF inputs generates supralinear Ca2+ signals that provide the information on their concomitant occurrance. These phenomena trigger both short- and long-term depression at PF-PN synapses associated with motor learning and coordination, i.e. the primary functions of the cerebellum. While activation of PFs elicits local Ca2+ transients that are confined to activated spines, the activation of the CF generates a large depolarization that spreads passively into the dendrites. The CF-mediated transient dendritic depolarization, not localized, plays a fundamental role in dendritic integration and in regulating local PF signals and their plasticity at distal sites. The study carried out in my thesis addressed two crucial questions of this problem: the dendritic ion channels activated by the CF-mediated dendritic depolarization at different initial Vm and the mechanisms underlying dendritic supralinear Ca2+ signals associated with concomitant PF and CF activity. The results reported here were obtained using recent optical methods of Vm imaging and ultrafast Ca2+ imaging with low affinity Ca2+ and high affinity Ca2+ indicators combined with pharmacological analysis.During the first part of my work, I characterized the behavior of the dendritic Ca2+ and K+ channels activated by CF-EPSPs at different initial dendritic Vm, using optical measurements of Vm and Ca2+ transients. We found that two different sets of ion channels are selectively activated at different states. When the dendrite is hyperpolarized, CF-EPSPs mainly activate T-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels (VGCCs), SK channels and A-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels (VGKCs) that limit the transient Vm below ~0 mV. When in contrast the dendrite is depolarized, T-type VGCCs and A-type VGKCs are inactivated and CF-EPSPs activate P/Q-type VGCCs, high-voltage activated VGKCs and BK channels, initiating Ca2+ spikes. We demonstrated that A-type VGKCs play a crucial role in controlling the second set of channels. Indeed, these channels limit the activation of P/Q-type VGCCs and associated K+ channels, preventing Ca2+ spikes.During the second part of my work, we demonstrated that the concomitant activation of PF and CF triggers two different types of supralinear Ca2+ signals. The activation of one or the other path depends on the delay between the activation of the two inputs which is the crucial discriminator of the mechanisms involved in the generation of supralinear Ca2+ signals. We found that when CF-EPSPs occur near the end of a burst of PFs, the associated supralinear Ca2+ transients are independent of the activation of mGluR1 and are produced by a combined effect of two mechanisms: the increased Ca2+ influx through P/Q-type VGCCs enabled by PF-depolarization inactivating A-type VGKCs; and the transient saturation of endogenous Ca2+ buffers during the PF-EPSP burst amplifying free Ca2+ concentration. When CF-EPSPs occur at longer delays after the end of the PF burst, the associated supralinear Ca2+ transients are mGluR1-dependent and do not involve the mechanisms underlying the generation of mGluR1-independent supralinear Ca2+ transients. Instead, an entirely different mechanism is recruited. We found that, the supralinear Ca2+ transients were correlated with an increase in mGluR1-dependent Ca2+ influx via the slow mGluR1-activated cation conductance.The results reported here advance our understanding of the generation of supralinear Ca2+ transients associated with the concomitant PF and CF activity with respect to the potential molecular mechanisms that are involved. Nevertheless, we were not able to provide a definitive answer on the nature of the Ca2+ influx mediating mGluR1-depedent supralinear Ca2+ signals. This issue must be further explored in future experiments.

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