Assessing the sustainability of construction products can help to identify particular characteristics and benefits which can then assist decision makers by allowing comparisons between products. Existing mechanisms and tools to make such assessments are associated to project-level assessments or have a bias towards environmental issues, rather than incorporating social, environmental and economic aspects of sustainability. The growing popularity of sustainability rating schemes and standards has created an imbalance for product manufacturers that are increasingly seeking ways to gain competitive advantage on the basis of producing more sustainable products. Aggregate Industries, a construction products manufacturer and the Building Research Establishment (BRE) therefore instigated this Engineering Doctorate (EngD) to address this lack of a holistic sustainability assessment methodology for construction products for manufacturers. The EngD research developed a sustainability assessment framework for ready-mixed concrete. The development of the framework was influenced by existing assessment schemes such as the BRE Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) and Ceequal (The Sustainability Assessment Scheme for Civil Engineering projects). The BRE BES 6001 Framework Standard for the Responsible Sourcing of Construction Products was also a factor in this research complimented by primary research. The assessment framework addresses a range of sustainability issues such as community engagement (social), waste (environmental) and whole life cost (economic) amongst others tailored to ready-mixed concrete. These issues are assessed against three product life cycle stages; raw materials; manufacture and use. The outputs of the framework will then inform the manufacturer about areas for improvement and present a profile of each product for a given manufacturing site in a more holistic way than current methods allow. The trialling of the assessment framework both in the UK and Canada has shown that the output of the EngD is a viable mechanism to assess the sustainability of concrete from a manufacturer s perspective. This research has given Aggregate Industries an opportunity to evaluate current objectives and targets within the business and helped to shape the future sustainability strategy. Aspects of the framework are also being considered for inclusion in the future development of the BRE s BES 6001 Framework Standard for the Responsible Sourcing of Construction Products. This EngD has also identified an emergent need for a shift in future focus from individual products to a systems level assessment approach. Product sustainability tends to focus on the embodied impacts whereas the sustainability of construction systems has a much broader focus over the entire life cycle of the system. This area of work will require further research.

This thesis presents a study of the fragmented nature of activities involved in the specification and procurement of construction products. Existing Internet-based approaches have perpetuated fragmentation in this domain and this has resulted in a problem known as 'digital anarchy.' The thesis describes the design and development of an application based on the metaphor of software agents to address this problem. The thesis has validated the view that failures in the existing approaches have resulted in the 'digital anarchy' problem. Such approaches have failed to eradicate paper-based communication patterns and its related sequential work methods. The thesis has established the proof of concept of using agents for the management of distributed information in the selected domain. The work has also synthesised agent technology, XML and Web Services into a cohesive architecture, demonstrating that the ultimate solution to the 'digital anarchy' problem will emerge from a synergy of the various streams of research in Internet-related technologies. The work has established that there is significant scope for systematic improvement in the specification and procurement of construction products listed on the Internet based on the agent paradigm.

This thesis deals with marketing used on the Czech market of roofing products and with all aspects of consumers' behavior during the choosing and roofing of the roof. Czech roofing market is a global mixture of many inter-relations among different distribution channels on the production and selling part on one hand and specifying and installing part on the other hand. The thesis deals with also all parts of the 4P and 4C models used by producers of roofing materials and with 4P model of other distribution channels -- resellers and installers. Quantitative survey on roofers and qualitative survey on roofers and resellers of roofing materials confirmed, that roofer is the closest professional to investor while his decision process. As such, he has big influence on his decision and is able to change his mind and final decision. Local presence of the reseller is crucial for the buying of goods at the respective point of sale. There are differences in used roofing materials depending on the region of the Czech Republic. The difference could be given by historical habit, or by influence and knowledge of the brand of roofing material in the respective region or by technical performance of the roofing material, which is requested due to weather conditions in respective parts of the country. All distribution channels on the Czech roofing market use marketing methods to achieve their goals by selling roofing products and with it linked services.

The purpose of this study is to achieve an understanding of how a CE- marking process is conducted and to identify the relevant factors that must be considered in such a process. We have conducted our study at Lövhults Svets & Smide AB (Lövhults) in Skruv, Småland Sweden, which are manufacturing brackets for small covering constructions. To understand how a CE-marking process is conducted several documents and provisions have been reviewed to achieve a basic understanding and insight of the subject. It thus led to that guideline ETAG 015 were studied and the factors to be considered in the CE-marking of brackets were identified. Together with Jan-Åke Johansson at Lövhults we agreed on four different brackets to investigate for a potential CE-marking. When these brackets had been selected a thorough investigation of these products was conducted, which then were compared with the provisions contained within ETAG 015. It states factors regarding the mechanical resistance, fire safety, environment, health, safety and usefulness that are to be considered. These factors should be specified and given a value / explanation which can be determined by European standards, calculation, calculation and testing, or only through testing. These calculations and tests shall be performed by the company or by a notified body. For a CE-marking to be possible to conduct it is mandatory to examine the manufacturing process of the products. Lövhults products are made of steel (Ymagine D1), which is processed in a punching machine, a bending machine, and finally a welding machine. After this processing, the products are sent for galvanizing and after which they are delivered back to Lövhults for dispatch to the customer. A production control procedure must be established and documented to ensure the quality of the manufactured products. The production control that we propose is simple in nature and is based on visual inspection of incoming materials, visual inspection of the work performed at each processing station and finally a visual check of incoming galvanized products. The manufacturing control needs to be approved by a notified body before it can be considered valid. The result of this study is that several correcting actions must be performed and that contact must be taken with a notified body to ensure that Lövhults products meet all the requirements that are demanded and thereby enable the products to receive a CE-marking. We have a discussion at the end of the report, resulting in the final conclusions and recommendations on whether the CE marking of Lövhults products is something that is worth investing in or not. / Denna studies syfte är att uppnå förståelse kring hur en CE-märkningsprocess går till och att kartlägga de faktorer som måste beaktas i en sådan process. Vi har utfört vår studie på Lövhults Svets & Smide AB (Lövhults) i Skruv, Småland, som producerar vinkelbeslag för täckande konstruktioner av mindre storlek. För att ta reda på hur en CE-märkningsprocess går till har ett flertal dokument och bestämmelser studerats för att skapa en grundläggande förståelse och insikt kring ämnet. Det ledde således till att riktlinje ETAG 015 studerades och att de faktorer som skall beaktas vid en CE-märkning av vinkelbeslag identifierades. Vi kom tillsammans med Jan-Åke Johansson på Lövhults överens om att undersöka fyra olika vinkelbeslag för en potentiell CE- märkning. När vinkelbeslagen valts ut genomfördes en noggrann produktgranskning som sedan ställdes mot de bestämmelser som återfinns i ETAG 015. Där utpekas faktorer gällande mekanisk motståndskraft, brandsäkerhet, miljö, hygien, säkerhet och användbarhet som skall beaktas. Dessa faktorer skall specificeras och ges ett värde/förklaring vilket kan fastställas via europeiska standarder, beräkning, beräkning och provning eller enbart via provning. Dessa beräkningar och provningar utförs av företaget eller av ett anmält organ. För att en CE-märkning ska vara möjlig måste även den tillverkningsprocess som produkterna i fråga genomgår granskas. Lövhults produkter tillverkas av stål (Ymagine D1) vilket bearbetas i en stansmaskin, bockningsmaskin och slutligen en svetsmaskin. Efter denna bearbetning skickas produkterna iväg för galvanisering och återkommer sedan till Lövhults för utleverans till kund. En plan för tillverkningskontroll ska upprättas och dokumenteras för att säkerställa kvalitén på de tillverkade produkterna. Den tillverkningskontroll som vi föreslår är av enkel natur och grundar sig på visuell kontroll av inkommande material, visuell kontroll av utfört arbete vid varje bearbetningsstation och slutligen en visuell kontroll inkomna av galvaniserade produkter. En tillverkningskontrollplan ska godkännas av ett anmält organ innan den kan anses giltig. Resultatet av denna undersökning är att ett flertal åtgärder måste vidtas och att kontakt med ett anmält organ måste tas för att Lövhults produkter ska uppfylla kraven som efterfrågas och därmed gå att CE-märka. Vi för en diskussion i slutet av rapporten vilket resulterar i slutsatser och rekommendationer gällande huruvida en CE-märkning av Lövhults produkter är något som är värt att satsa på eller inte. / Detta arbete är utfört som en fallstudie på Lövhults Svets & Smide AB (Lövhults) med intentionen att försöka skapa ett underlag för CE-märkning av de vinkelbeslag som företaget tillverkar. Tillsammans med företaget pekades fyra vinkelbeslag ut som lämpliga kandidater för en potentiell CE-märkning. För att erhålla kunskap och förståelse kring hur en CE-märkning av vinkelbeslag går till studerades dokument, standarder och bestämmelser från Europeiska Unionen vilket slutligen ledde oss till riktlinje ETAG 015. Denna riktlinje innefattar de bestämmelser som man skall förhålla sig till vid en CE- märkning av vinkelbeslag och den fungerar därmed som en teoretisk grundplattform. Utifrån detta dokument identifierades de faktorer som är relevanta att beakta för de fyra utvalda vinkelbeslagen hos Lövhults. En noggrann undersökning och granskning av produkterna genomfördes för att erhålla önskade specifikationer som sedan ställdes sedan mot de utpekade krav som återfinns i ETAG 015 för att kontrolla produkternas överensstämmelse. Analysen av denna jämförelse resulterar i slutsatsen att ett flertal åtgärder måste vidtas på produkterna och att en tillverkningskontroll behöver implementeras. Vidare förs en diskussion kring de för- och nackdelar en CE- märkning innebär av Lövhults vinkelbeslag. Rapporten avslutas med våra rekommendationer som baseras på de presenterade slutsatser som genererats.

A change in resource consumption patterns is crucial to avoid climate change, reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and to increase climate resilience and consequently, the idea of a circular economy (CE) has gained widespread attention. The resource intense building and construction sector has become subject to both internal and external pressure to become more circular. Throughout the sector, the environmental product declaration (EPD) is often used to communicate environmental and sustainability information about products but currently, the EPD lacks the inclusion of specific circularity information. This thesis aims to identify a suitable indicator for measuring the product circularity of construction products that can be implemented into the existing EPD-scheme. The study is based on an extensive literature review, qualitative interviews with green building councils (GBCs) and expert discussions with the ECO Platform task group for CE. The identified product circularity indicators have been assessed against a certain set of subjects and criteria to evaluate their inclusion of circularity subjects as well as their suitability to the EPD. The assessment identified two indicators scoring the highest, the Material Circularity Indicator (MCI) and the New Circularity Index (NCI). These indicators were included in a short pilot study to further evaluate their usability and applicability. The study concludes that both indicators are suitable for inclusion in the EPD-scheme to some extent, but they both lack a full inclusion of the end of life (EoL) stage. These subjects must be covered to ensure inclusion of comprehensive circularity information but nevertheless, the MCI and the NCI remains the best options. / För att undvika klimatförändringar, minska utsläppen av växthusgaser och öka samhällets resiliens måste användandet av naturresurser förändras. I samband med en ny syn på resursanvändning har idén om en cirkulär ekonomi fått stor uppmärksamhet. Både interna och externa krav har ökat på den resursintensiva byggsektorn att bli mer cirkulär. I byggsektorn används ofta miljövarudeklarationer (EPD) för att kommunicera miljö- och hållbarhetsinformation om produkter. Idag saknar dock EPD-systemet specifik information om produkters cirkuläritetsprestanda. Detta examensarbete syftar därför till att identifiera en indikator som är lämplig för att mäta produktcirkuläritet hos byggprodukter och som kan implementeras i det befintliga EPD-systemet. Studien är baserad på en omfattande litteraturstudie och kvalitativa intervjuer med Green Building Councils (GBC) samt expertdiskussioner med ECO Platforms arbetsgrupp för cirkulär ekonomi. Ett antal identifierade indikatorer för produktcirkuläritet har utvärderats mot ett antal kriterier framtagna av arbetsgruppen. Målet var att utvärdera deras respektive inkludering av cirkuläritet samt deras lämplighet i förhållande till en EPD. De två indikatorer som fick högst poäng, Material Circularity Indicator (MCI) och New Circularity Index (NCI), inkluderades i en pilotstudie för att utvärdera deras användbarhet och tillämpbarhet i praktiken. Studien drar slutsatsen att båda indikatorerna är lämpliga för att inkluderas i EPD-systemet till en viss utsträckning. Dock saknar de båda en fullständig inkludering av cirkuläritetsperspektiv som täcker produktens slutskede i livscykeln. Dessa perspektiv är av stor vikt för att säkerställa framförandet av fullständig cirkuläritetsinformation. Trots detta visar studien att MCI och NCI är de indikatorer som utgör de bästa alternativen för att integreras i en EPD.

Tous les produits de construction ou les ouvrages qui sont en contact avec l’eau de pluie, sont susceptibles de relarguer des composants chimiques potentiellement dangereux pour la santé humaine et l’environnement. Actuellement, le relargage des substances dangereuses dans l’eau est évalué essentiellement par des méthodes expérimentales - généralement des essais de lixiviation réalisées à l’échelle du laboratoire. Par ailleurs, les impacts environnementaux des produits de construction et des bâtiments sont évalués par l’approche Analyse de Cycle de Vie (ACV), réalisées à partir de données propres aux fabricants et de données génériques existantes constituées en bases de données. Or, les émissions de polluants pendant la vie en oeuvre des produits de construction sont actuellement mal prises en compte dans ces mêmes bases de données existantes et dans les méthodes utilisées pour l’évaluation des performances environnementales des produits et des bâtiments.Dans ce contexte, les objectifs de ces travaux ont été : (i) de développer une méthodologie pour l’évaluation du comportement à la lixiviation de différentes matrices de produits de construction et (ii) d’intégrer les données de lixiviation dans les méthodes ACV à l’échelle du bâtiment. La méthodologie développée pour l’évaluation du comportement à la lixiviation des produits de construction est basée sur : (1) des essais de caractérisation à la lixiviation, selon les méthodes standardisées d’évaluation répondant au Règlement Produits de Construction (RPC), (2) la modélisation et la simulation des phénomènes couplés chimie-transport à l’échelle laboratoire et vraie grandeur et (3) l’intégration des données de lixiviation, obtenues par des simulations numériques en conditions d’exposition naturelle des produits de construction, dans les méthodes ACV, aux échelles produit et bâtiment.La méthodologie proposée a été appliquée et validée sur trois produits de construction : le bois traité CBA (Cuivre - Bore - Azole), la plaque fibrociment et la membrane bitumineuse. Les comportements à la lixiviation du bois traité CBA et de la plaque fibrociment a été simulé pour des conditions naturelles d’exposition à long terme, en utilisant le logiciel géochimique PHREEQC®. Les modèles chimiques développées permettent de considérer les matrices organiques et minérales et leurs interactions avec les polluants. Les phénomènes de transport des substances ont été également modélisés. Les modèles d’émission développés (couplage chimie-transport) permettent de simuler la lixiviation dynamique des produits considérés, pour différentes conditions d’exposition. Pour la membrane bitumineuse, seule la caractérisation expérimentale a été réalisée. Les données de lixiviation obtenues lors des simulations sur la durée de vie en oeuvre des produits ont été intégrées dans les inventaires respectifs du cycle de vie (ICV) des produits. Des méthodes d’impact spécifiques ont été utilisées en association avec les inventaires enrichis pour évaluer les impacts “pollution de l’eau”, “toxicité humaine” et “écotoxicité” des produits considérés. L’ACV d’une maison simplifiée a été réalisée en utilisant le logiciel ELODIE. La méthode d’évaluation à l’échelle bâtiment consiste à intégrer les nouvelles données construites sur la base de la méthodologie développée à l’échelle produit aux autres données d’ACV à l’échelle bâtiment. La méthodologie développée au cours de ces travaux permet donc l’intégration des données de lixiviation dans les outils ACV dédiés au bâtiment / Any construction product and building undergoing contact with water during its life cycle can release chemical compounds potentially hazardous for the human health and the environment. The release of dangerous substances is presently investigated especially by experimental approaches commonly by laboratory leaching tests while the environmental impacts of construction products and buildings are evaluated by a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach. The dangerous substances release during use stage of construction products (leaching behaviour) is currently very poorly represented in the existing data bases and methods for environmental assessment of construction products and buildings.In this context, the main objectives of this study were: (i) to develop a methodology for the assessment of the leaching behaviour of various construction products and (ii) to integrate the leaching data in LCA approach at building scale. The methodology developed for the assessment of the leaching behaviour of construction products is based on: (1) characterisation leaching tests at lab scale, following the horizontal standardised assessment methods for harmonised approaches relating to dangerous substances under the Construction Products Regulation (CPR), (2) modelling and simulation of coupled chemical and transport phenomena at lab and field scale, and (3) utilisation of simulated leaching data for the construction products exposed in natural condition with the LCA method for the characterization of the hazardous effect during the use stage. The proposed methodology was applied and validated on three different classical construction products i.e. CBA (Copper-Boron-Azole) treated wood, fibre-cement sheets and bitumen membranes. The leaching behaviour of CBA treated wood and fibre-cement sheets was simulated over several years under natural exposure conditions, using the geochemical software PHREEQC. The chemical models consider both the mineral and the organic matrixes and their interaction with treatmentcompounds. Mass transfer and transport phenomena were modelled. The developed coupled chemical-transport models are able to represent the dynamic leaching behaviour of the respective products in various leaching conditions. For bitumen membranes only experimental characterisation was possible. The leaching data obtained by simulation over the whole use stage of the products were integrated in the life cycle inventory (LCI) and the relevant life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) methods were applied with the enriched inventory. A simplified single-family house was modelled using a software designed to evaluate the intrinsic environmental performances of a building over its entire life cycle. ELODIE software was used in this work. The building scale assessment methodology is based on coupling the methodology developed for the product scale with the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) at building scale. This methodology allows a proper integration of leaching data in LCA tools and answers several technical questions raised in the field

The construction sector accounts for about one fifth of Sweden's greenhouse gas emissions. It is also the sector that produces the second most waste in Sweden. Today there is an increased need for housing in Sweden, at the same time as the construction sector must reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. Usually when renovating a building, construction products are disposed despite having a remaining service of life. The purpose of this study is to investigate how the reuse of construction products can be increased in the construction sector. And to find out how companies in Växjö work with reusing construction products. The work was based on the project Kv. Stommen, the project was about a new preschool in Vikaholm, Växjö. In the project the buyer had requested that some construction products should be reused. The purpose of the study was addressed by using interview methodology and partaking in focus group discussion with Godahåll during their meeting. According to the results there are seven challenges that must be overcome before the reuse of construction products in the construction sector can increase. The representatives from the companies in Växjö, who were interviewed had a positive attitude towards reuse of construction products. One conclusion is that there is an interest in the construction sector to use reused construction products and that it will increase in the future. Another conclusion is that by using reused construction products, the construction sector´s waste volumes can be reduced and contribute to a circular construction.

In this thesis, a framework is constructed for a life cycle assessment within a civilengineering project. There are various methods available on how to conduct lifecycle assessments and this thesis explores one method related to civil engineeringworks. The assessment follows the structure based in related standards such asEN 15804 which describes how to declare construction products. A working copyof a possible upcoming European level standard for sustainability assessment ofcivil engineering works is also used in the process. The object of assessment arethe materials, concrete and steel, in the retaining walls that are constructed alongthe channel near Södertälje Harbour. This is a part of a larger project, called theMälar Project.The life cycle of these type of constructions often stretches over long periodsof time which leaves a lot of uncertainties while estimating the impacts during thelater life stages. The research problem is much about how to handle the differentmodules of the life cycle regarding civil engineering works.Example data were collected and presented for each module of the life stage.The results of the example data showed that most of the impact came from theproduct stage. The conclusions are that the collection of data should be an integratedpart in the operating procedures for the company for a more efficientprocess, Environmental Product Declarations are a good source of data and standardson European level gives good guidelines on how to conduct a life cycleassessment for civil engineering projects. / I detta examensarbete konstrueras ett ramverk för hur en livscykelanalys kan utförasinom väg- och vattenbyggnad. Det finns många olika riktlinjer för hur enlivscykelanalys kan utföras och i detta examensarbete utforskas en metod för projektinom väg- och vattenbyggnad. Arbetet följer strukturen ur EN 15804 sombeskriver hur man bedömer byggprodukter. Ett arbetsexemplar av en ny, möjligstandard på Europanivå för miljöbedömning av projekt inom väg- och vatten användsockså i processen. Det som bedöms via livscykelanalys i denna studie är deingående materialen, stål och betong, i hållväggarna som byggs längs med kanalenvid Södertälje Hamn. Detta är en del av ett större projekt, kallat Mälarprojektet.Livscyklerna för denna typ av projekt är oftast väldigt långa vilket skapar enosäkerhet i data då påverkan för senare delar av livscykeln behöver uppskattas.Problematiken som presenteras handlar mycket om hur modulerna för livscykelnska behandlas för denna typ av projekt.Exempeldata samlades in för de olika modulerna och presenterades i tabellersom täcker alla relevanta delar av livscykeln. Resultatet av exempeldatan visadeatt den mesta påverkan kom från produktstadiet. De slutsatser som dras är attinsamlingen av data bör vara en integrerad del av företagets arbetsmetod fören effektiv process, miljödeklarationer är en bra källa till data och standards påEuropanivå ger bra guidelinjer för hur en livscykelanalys kan utföras för liknandeprojekt.

以往針對客戶流失與轉換行為所研究的對象，多偏重以消費品產業為主，較少探討工業品產業客戶流失對於企業經營所造成之影響。本研究針對工業品產業中之營建工具業，探討其客戶流失之原因及行為表現，並期望透過相關研究，使業者可預先發現可能流失之客戶，並做為後續發展客戶慰留專案之參考。 本研究可分為五部份，第一部份首先將回顧與本論文有關之文獻。第二部份則提出本研究之研究架構及研究方法。第三部份則以SPSS軟體進行實證研究，統計方法係利用敘述性統計分析、因素分析、信度分析、單因子變異數分析及區別分析等進行資料分析。第四部分為討論前述之研究發現，並將其與消費品市場之客戶流失行為模式相比較。最後則為結論與建議。 研究結果發現：1.流失原因可萃取出產品及服務因素及價格因素兩大構面。轉購原因可萃取出服務及品牌策略、產品策略及價格策略三大構面。2.流失行為係以降低購買頻率及轉換新的供應商兩種方式表現。3.營建工具業與服務業客戶轉換行為模式有明顯差異。4.購買持續時間較長之客戶，對於送貨時間太久之重要性認知程度與購買持續時間較短之客戶有明顯差異。產品價格太高及採購頻率兩項變數可作為判別流失客戶是否會轉換供應商之模式。但由於區別力不甚良好，故並不適合以此兩項變數作為判斷預測之基準。 / A great deal of effort has been made on the causes of customer churn in the consumer products industry. What seems to be lacking, however, is this subject in the industrial products industry. This study will focus the discussion on the causes of customer churn and customer switching behavior in the construction products supplier, in order to provide guidance for developing retention and loyalty programs. This study can be divided into five parts; the first part reviews the literature on this subject. The second part introduces the methodology to be utilized throughout the study, first with structural diagram of study followed by study methods, and object in study. The third part utilizes using SPSS for Windows as the tool to conduct statistical analysis, including description statistical analysis, reliability test, Discriminant Analysis, Factor Analysis, and One-way ANOVA. The fourth part discusses the experimental result of this study, and compares it with customer switching behavior in the consumer products industry. The last part is a conclusion of the thesis. The results of this study show as follows. 1. The main causes of customer churn are product and service oriented or price oriented. The main causes of customer switch are service and brand strategy, product strategy or price strategy. 2. Customer switching behavior includes decreasing purchased frequency and transferring to a new service provider. 3. Customer switching behavioral model in the service industry is different from the model in the construction products supplier. 4. The customers who have longer purchasing duration have higher recognition of importance for deliver time. Purchasing frequency and product price are not the best variables to predict if the customers would churn or not.