[pt] Possibilidade de contribuição de uma análise contrastiva para o estabelecimento de parâmetros confiáveis e compatíveis entre línguas. O essencial e o central versus o periférico Nessa dissertação procura-se mostrar que por detrás de uma forma subjaz sempre algo mais profundo e explicitado em si mesmo e que a diversidade aparente será, muitas vezes, ilusória e de natureza epifenomenal, ou seja, essa diversidade se oriunda da interação de princípios fixos sob condições ligeiramente variantes. Através de uma amostra propõe-se mostrar o comportamento e a coocorrência de especificadores demonstrativos, possessivos e atributivos nas duas línguas, português e árabe, bem como o papel desempenhado pelo determinante artigo definido na formação de uma construção específica na língua árabe, o IDaafa, que dispensa a preposição como elemento de ligação mas traz o uso compulsório do determinante respeitadas restrições que podem ocorrer graças aos elementos constitutivos dentro do sintagma. / [en] A contrastive analysis may contribute for the establishment of reliable and compatible parameters among languages. Core always surpasses periphery and in the reality of languages one should not attain oneself to a first appearance. In our dissertation we have tried to show that behind one specific form there lies something much deeper and explicited in itself and that an apparent diversity is most of times illusory and of epiphenomenal nature, that is, this diversity stems from the interaction of fixed principles under slightly varying conditions. By means of a sample we propose to present the behavior and the coocurrence of demonstrative, possessive and attributive specifiers in the two languages, Portuguese and Arabic, as well as the role played by the determiner, the definite article, in the formation of a specific structure in the Arabic language named the IDaafa which needs no linking element such as the preposition but demands the compulsory use of the determiner, restrictions being respected thanks to the constitutive elements enrolled within the NP.

A presente tese tem como objetivo estudar as preposições passíveis de interpretação causal em alemão e português, de forma contrastiva, com base no processo de gramaticalização e enfoque sincrônico. Para este estudo foi feito um levantamento das preposições consideradas causais ou com acepção causal na literatura. A seguir, foram recolhidas ocorrências em alemão e português para a composição de um corpus, cujas ocorrências foram testadas para que pudesse ou não ser atestado o caráter causal das preposições, além de ter sido desenvolvido um quadro para mostrar o seu grau de gramaticalização. A fim de explicar como a interpretação causal é conferida às preposições, propôs-se um desmembramento do domínio QUALIDADE proposto por Heine et al. (1991), visto que de acordo com o estudo, a noção de causa advém por meio de relações de contiguidade metonímica não só dos domínios PESSOA, ESPAÇO e TEMPO, mas também dos grupos modo, condição, instrumento, finalidade e tema, noções que provavelmente se encontram no domínio QUALIDADE / This thesis aims to contrastively study prepositions that enable causal interpretation in German and Portuguese, based on the process of Grammaticalization and with a synchronic approach. For this study, a collection of prepositions considered causal or with causal meaning in the literature was made. Thereafter, occurrences in German and Portuguese were collected to compose a corpus. Then, these occurrences have been tested in order to prove or not the possibility of the causal character of the prepositions analyzed. Also, a table has been developed to show the degree of grammaticalization of these prepositions. In order to explain how the causal interpretation is given to prepositions, we propose a breakdown of the domain QUALITY proposed by Heine et al. (1991), since according to the study, the notion of cause comes through the relationships of metonymical contiguity not only from the domains PERSON, SPACE and TIME, but also from the mode, condition, instrument, goal and theme groups, concepts that are likely to be found within the domain QUALITY

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / Esta pesquisa tem como objetivo principal investigar como aprendizes brasileiros de língua inglesa usam advérbios com terminação em ly no inglês escrito, e comparar ao uso que deles fazem os falantes de inglês como língua materna. Para tanto, o trabalho encontra suporte teórico e metodológico na Linguística de Corpus e fundamenta-se na área chamada de pesquisa sobre corpora de aprendizes, que se ocupa da coleta e armazenagem de dados linguísticos de sujeitos aprendizes de uma língua estrangeira, para a formação de um corpus que possa ser utilizado para fins descritivos e pedagógicos. Esta área objetiva identificar em que aspectos os aprendizes diferem ou se assemelham aos falantes nativos. Os corpora empregados na pesquisa são o corpus de estudo (Br-ICLE), contendo inglês escrito por brasileiros, compilado de acordo com o projeto ICLE (International Corpus of Learner English) e dois corpora de referência (LOCNESS e BAWE), contendo inglês escrito por falantes de inglês como língua materna. Os resultados indicam que os alunos brasileiros usam, em demasia, as categorias de advérbios que indicam veracidade, realidade e intensidade, em relação ao uso que deles fazem os falantes nativos, além de usarem esses advérbios de forma distinta. Os resultados sugerem que, além das diferenças apresentadas em termos de frequência (seja pelo sobreuso ou subuso dos advérbios), os aprendizes apresentavam combinações errôneas, ou em termos de colocados ou em termos de prosódia semântica. E finalmente a pesquisa revela que a preferência dos aprendizes por advérbios que exprimem veracidade, realidade e intensidade cria a impressão de um discurso muito assertivo. Conclui-se que as diferenças encontradas podem estar ligadas a fatores como o tamanho dos corpora, a influência da língua materna dos aprendizes, a internalização dos elementos linguísticos necessários para a produção de um texto em língua estrangeira, a falta de fluência dos aprendizes e o contexto de sala de aula nas universidades / This research investigates how Brazilian learners of English use adverbs ending in-ly in written English and compares their use to that of speakers of English as a mother tongue. To this end, the work resorts to Corpus Linguistics as both theoretical and methodological support. The research is based on the area called Learner Corpora Research, which deals with the collection, storage and analysis of linguistic data produced by learners of a foreign language, which can then be used for descriptive and teaching purposes. This area aims to identify ways in which learners use of the foreign language is different or similar to that of native speakers. The data used in this research are the corpus of study (Br-ICLE), containing written English produced by Brazilian learners, built according to the ICLE project (International Corpus of Learner English), as well as two reference corpora (Locness and BAWE) containing written English produced by speakers of English as a mother tongue. The results indicate that Brazilian learners overuse the categories of adverbs that indicate truth, reality and intensity in comparison to the use made by native speakers, furthermore they use these adverbs in different ways. The results also suggest that, given the differences in frequency (either by overuse or underuse of adverbs), the learners tend to misuse combinations in terms of collocates or in terms of semantic prosody. And finally, the research reveals that the preference of learners for adverbs expressing truth, reality and intensity creates the impression of very assertive voices. We conclude that these differences may be related to factors such as the size of the corpus, the influence of the learners mother tongue, the internalization of linguistic elements needed to produce a text in a foreign language or even the lack of fluency of the learners and the classroom context in the universities

Esta tese trata da aquisição do sistema vocálico em posição tônica e pretônica do português brasileiro fazendo uso de dados longitudinais de 3 crianças gravadas semanalmente de 1;0 à 3;5 (ano;mês) provenientes do Banco de dados A aquisição do ritmo em Português Brasileiro Processos de Ancoragem (SANTOS, 2005). O arcabouço teórico assumido é a Teoria da Hierarquia Contrastiva de Traços HCT - (2003; 2009), que prevê que os segmentos da língua sejam lexicalmente representados através de uma hierarquia de traços dependente de processos fonológicos e específica de cada língua. E, uma vez que a hierarquia de traços não é inata, ela deve ser construída pela criança com base no input. Trata-se de um trabalho inovador, pois, além de usar a HCT para explicar a trajetória de aquisição das vogais do PB, aborda questões que ainda estão em aberto na teoria, tal como o papel do input na aquisição fonológica, a variabilidade na aquisição e a reestruturação de hierarquias. Nossos dados mostram que, de fato, as crianças trilham caminhos diferentes para adquirir o sistema vocálico do PB. Enquanto duas delas, L. e Am., iniciam suas hierarquias por ponto de articulação, a terceira A. inicia por altura. Em relação a essas diferenças, discutimos uma proposta de hierarquia contrastiva para o PB que se inicia por altura vocálica (Lee, 2008), e verificamos que essa proposta não dá conta do processo de elisão do dialeto de São Paulo, ao qual as crianças desse estudo estão expostas. Por esse motivo, (i) elaboramos uma proposta de hierarquia contrastiva para esse dialeto a qual se inicia por ponto e (ii) propomos que se os contrastes iniciais infantis impedem que, posteriormente, a gramática infantil dê conta dos processos da língua, a criança reestrutura sua hierarquia assim que possível. A organização da hierarquia e os traços utilizados foram estabelecidos de acordo com a ordem de aquisição dos segmentos (aquisição estabelecida de acordo com a metodologia de Ingram 1981, 1989) e as substituições ocorridas na fala infantil. Em relação à reestruturação, conseguimos evidenciar um momento em que há reestruturação nas hierarquias observando as substituições. Em relação à aquisição da pauta pretônica, partimos da hipótese de que segmentos que sofrem processos fonológicos seriam adquiridos mais tardiamente (cf. MIRANDA, 2013), e, por esse motivo, ambos /e/ e /o/ pretônicas apresentariam diferenças de aquisição em relação às suas contrapartes tônicas. Os resultados mostraram, entretanto, que apenas a vogal pretônica /e/ é adquirida mais tardiamente, o que traz mais evidências aos estudos que defendem que apenas essa vogal é alvo do processo de harmonia vocálica no PB. Dessa forma, ao discutir a aquisição do sistema vocálico em Português Brasileiro a partir da Hierarquia Contrastiva de Traços, conseguimos tratar da influência do input na aquisição vocálica, da variabilidade entre os aprendizes e da reestruturação de hierarquias, o que não é possível a partir de outros arcabouços teóricos. / This thesis deals with the acquisition of the vowel system in tonic and pretonic positions in Brazilian Portuguese, using longitudinal data from three children recorded every week from 1;0 to 3;5 (year; month) from the database Aquisição de Ritmo em Português Brasileiro Processos de Ancoragem (SANTOS, 2005). The theoretical framework assumed is Contrastive Hierarchy Theory - CHT - (DRESHER, 2003; 2009), which proposes that the segments of language are lexically represented by a feature hierarchy dependent on the language and its phonological processes. As the feature hierarchy is not innate, it must be constructed by the child based on input. This is an innovative study because in addition to using CHT to explain the acquisition trajectory for BP vowels, it addresses issues that have not yet been addressed in the theory, such as the role of input in phonological acquisition, variability in acquisition, and the restructuring of hierarchies. Our data show that, in fact, the children take different paths in acquiring the vowel system in BP. While two of them, L. and Am, begin their hierarchies with the place of articulation, the third, A. begins with height. In regard to these differences, we discuss a proposal for a contrastive hierarchy for BP that begins with vowel height (Lee, 2008), and we find that this proposal does not account for the external sandhi process in the São Paulo dialect to which the children in this study are exposed. For this reason, (i) we have put forward a contrastive hierarchy proposal for the dialect which begins with place of articulation and (ii) we have proposed that if children\'s initial contrasts subsequently prevent child grammar handling the language\'s processes, the child restructures its hierarchy as soon as possible. The organization of the hierarchy and features used were established according to the order of acquisition of the segments (acquisition established in accordance with the Ingram\'s methodology 1981, 1989) and the substitutions which occurred in child language. Regarding restructuring, we have identified a moment when there is restructuring in the hierarchies observing substitutions. Regarding the acquisition of pretonic position, we started from the hypothesis that the segments that undergo phonological processes would be acquired later (cf. MIRANDA, 2013) and, for this reason, both pretonic /e/ and /o/ would present differences in acquisition in relation to their tonic counterparts. The results showed, however, that only the pretonic vowel /e/ is acquired later, which provides more evidence for studies that argue that only this vowel is the target of the vowel harmony process in BP. Thus, when discussing the acquisition of the vowel system in Brazilian Portuguese based on Contrastive Hierarchy Theory, we can address the influence of input on vowel acquisition, the variability among learners, and the restructuring of hierarchies, which is not possible using other theoretical frameworks.

Esta tese trata da aquisição do sistema vocálico em posição tônica e pretônica do português brasileiro fazendo uso de dados longitudinais de 3 crianças gravadas semanalmente de 1;0 à 3;5 (ano;mês) provenientes do Banco de dados A aquisição do ritmo em Português Brasileiro Processos de Ancoragem (SANTOS, 2005). O arcabouço teórico assumido é a Teoria da Hierarquia Contrastiva de Traços HCT - (2003; 2009), que prevê que os segmentos da língua sejam lexicalmente representados através de uma hierarquia de traços dependente de processos fonológicos e específica de cada língua. E, uma vez que a hierarquia de traços não é inata, ela deve ser construída pela criança com base no input. Trata-se de um trabalho inovador, pois, além de usar a HCT para explicar a trajetória de aquisição das vogais do PB, aborda questões que ainda estão em aberto na teoria, tal como o papel do input na aquisição fonológica, a variabilidade na aquisição e a reestruturação de hierarquias. Nossos dados mostram que, de fato, as crianças trilham caminhos diferentes para adquirir o sistema vocálico do PB. Enquanto duas delas, L. e Am., iniciam suas hierarquias por ponto de articulação, a terceira A. inicia por altura. Em relação a essas diferenças, discutimos uma proposta de hierarquia contrastiva para o PB que se inicia por altura vocálica (Lee, 2008), e verificamos que essa proposta não dá conta do processo de elisão do dialeto de São Paulo, ao qual as crianças desse estudo estão expostas. Por esse motivo, (i) elaboramos uma proposta de hierarquia contrastiva para esse dialeto a qual se inicia por ponto e (ii) propomos que se os contrastes iniciais infantis impedem que, posteriormente, a gramática infantil dê conta dos processos da língua, a criança reestrutura sua hierarquia assim que possível. A organização da hierarquia e os traços utilizados foram estabelecidos de acordo com a ordem de aquisição dos segmentos (aquisição estabelecida de acordo com a metodologia de Ingram 1981, 1989) e as substituições ocorridas na fala infantil. Em relação à reestruturação, conseguimos evidenciar um momento em que há reestruturação nas hierarquias observando as substituições. Em relação à aquisição da pauta pretônica, partimos da hipótese de que segmentos que sofrem processos fonológicos seriam adquiridos mais tardiamente (cf. MIRANDA, 2013), e, por esse motivo, ambos /e/ e /o/ pretônicas apresentariam diferenças de aquisição em relação às suas contrapartes tônicas. Os resultados mostraram, entretanto, que apenas a vogal pretônica /e/ é adquirida mais tardiamente, o que traz mais evidências aos estudos que defendem que apenas essa vogal é alvo do processo de harmonia vocálica no PB. Dessa forma, ao discutir a aquisição do sistema vocálico em Português Brasileiro a partir da Hierarquia Contrastiva de Traços, conseguimos tratar da influência do input na aquisição vocálica, da variabilidade entre os aprendizes e da reestruturação de hierarquias, o que não é possível a partir de outros arcabouços teóricos. / This thesis deals with the acquisition of the vowel system in tonic and pretonic positions in Brazilian Portuguese, using longitudinal data from three children recorded every week from 1;0 to 3;5 (year; month) from the database Aquisição de Ritmo em Português Brasileiro Processos de Ancoragem (SANTOS, 2005). The theoretical framework assumed is Contrastive Hierarchy Theory - CHT - (DRESHER, 2003; 2009), which proposes that the segments of language are lexically represented by a feature hierarchy dependent on the language and its phonological processes. As the feature hierarchy is not innate, it must be constructed by the child based on input. This is an innovative study because in addition to using CHT to explain the acquisition trajectory for BP vowels, it addresses issues that have not yet been addressed in the theory, such as the role of input in phonological acquisition, variability in acquisition, and the restructuring of hierarchies. Our data show that, in fact, the children take different paths in acquiring the vowel system in BP. While two of them, L. and Am, begin their hierarchies with the place of articulation, the third, A. begins with height. In regard to these differences, we discuss a proposal for a contrastive hierarchy for BP that begins with vowel height (Lee, 2008), and we find that this proposal does not account for the external sandhi process in the São Paulo dialect to which the children in this study are exposed. For this reason, (i) we have put forward a contrastive hierarchy proposal for the dialect which begins with place of articulation and (ii) we have proposed that if children\'s initial contrasts subsequently prevent child grammar handling the language\'s processes, the child restructures its hierarchy as soon as possible. The organization of the hierarchy and features used were established according to the order of acquisition of the segments (acquisition established in accordance with the Ingram\'s methodology 1981, 1989) and the substitutions which occurred in child language. Regarding restructuring, we have identified a moment when there is restructuring in the hierarchies observing substitutions. Regarding the acquisition of pretonic position, we started from the hypothesis that the segments that undergo phonological processes would be acquired later (cf. MIRANDA, 2013) and, for this reason, both pretonic /e/ and /o/ would present differences in acquisition in relation to their tonic counterparts. The results showed, however, that only the pretonic vowel /e/ is acquired later, which provides more evidence for studies that argue that only this vowel is the target of the vowel harmony process in BP. Thus, when discussing the acquisition of the vowel system in Brazilian Portuguese based on Contrastive Hierarchy Theory, we can address the influence of input on vowel acquisition, the variability among learners, and the restructuring of hierarchies, which is not possible using other theoretical frameworks.

Since Kaplan started the study of contrastive rhetoric, researchers have investigated Japanese and English compositions and have found some differences between them. However, few studies have investigated how these differences are perceived by native English readers when the different rhetorical patterns are transferred to English writing. Drawing from Hinds' study, this research focuses on the following: how the Japanese style of writing is evaluated by Japanese and American readers, especially in academic situations, how Japanese rhetorical patterns are perceived by American readers, and how a change of organization affects the evaluation by American readers.

This study aims to discuss the noun and prepositional phrases in English and in Vietnamese and their impact upon teaching and learning English in the Vietnamese situation. Attempts have been made to state the similarities and differences in noun and prepositional phrases in the two languages and raise and solve some difficulties and problems arising particularly from differences between English and Vietnamese. In this study, Contrastive Linguistics is concerned with the comparison of the two languages with a view to determining the differences and similarities between them. With this practical aim the study tries to provide a model for comparison and determine how and which of the phrases are comparable. It is hoped to provide as much information as is possible in a limited study of this kind on English noun and prepositional phrases, then on Vietnamese noun phrases. The study draws attention to differences with examples. It analyses the heads of noun phrases in the two languages as well as the pre and postmodifications and their positions. It also analyses the uses of the prepositional phrases in the two languages. At the same time, it points out the kinds of errors made by Vietnamese learners in the above-mentioned areas and their causes. Finally, some suggestions are made for those who may be responsible for teaching English as a Foreign Language to younger pupils as well as adults, or to students at universities or colleges

The purpose of this study is to present a contrastive analysis of the different types of interrogative sentences in English and Vietnamese including their structures and meanings. It is also hoped that the result of this study will be of some use to English teachers in Vietnam in their classroom teaching and in their preparation of teaching materials. It may also be useful to Vietnamese students who are learning English, especially when learning the English interrogative mood. Hitherto, there have been different models of description of language, but the systemic model is considered to be one of the most comprehensive, since it is able to bring out the functional uses of language and can be used to describe any language. For this reason, the systemic model is adopted in this paper to describe the two systems of the English and Vietnamese interrogative mood. The varieties of the two languages, English and Vietnamese, from which examples are taken for analysis in this paper, are Southern British Standard and Standard Vietnamese ranging from colloquial to literary. Throughout each chapter, the examples are numbered in consecutive order. Examples in Vietnamese are presented with a slash mark ( / ) placed between lexical items to facilitate the matching of Vietnamese with the literal English translation which follows. The literal translation is followed by a freer English translation enclosed in quotation marks. The study consists of five chapters. In the first chapter, the author begins by summarizing different views on the nature of language and their applications in language teaching and learning, and then presents a short introduction to systemic linguistics and a brief sketch of systemic grammar. The second chapter is about the English interrogative mood. This description of the English interrogative mood is largely based on the ideas on Mood presented by D. J. Young, lecturer in English in the University of Wales Institute of Science and Technology in Britain. In the third chapter, an attempt is made to provide a detailed description of the different types of interrogative sentences in Vietnamese. Chapter four moves to a contrastive analysis which consists of a textual and then a systemic comparison and contrast of the two interrogative mood systems in English and Vietnamese. A recapitulation of what has been done in the previous chapters and some suggestions for the preparation of teaching material and the teaching of English interrogative sentences to Vietnamese students are presented in chapter five, which is the last chapter of the study.

<p><strong>Abstract</strong></p><p> </p><p>The aim of this study is to look at the use of formulaic language, i.e. memorized and conventionalized combinations of words, in essays written by Swedish intermediate level students of English. Drawing on previous research (Cohen and Brooks -Carson 2001) this study will apply a method of “warming up” in Swedish (L1) before writing in English (L2). The primary material includes thirty essays written directly in English, and thirty essays starting from an outline in Swedish and then written in English, by the same students but on a different topic.</p><p>Since there is evidence that native speakers always score the highest on amount of formulaic language in written discourse, the main hypothesis of this study is that by starting from an outline in Swedish and then writing in English the students will make use of more formulaic language than when writing directly in English. The first research question involves the quantity of formulaic language in the students’ essays. The second question concerns the distribution and use of the different categories of FSs (NPs, VPs etc) in the direct and indirect modes of writing. The last question addresses the erroneous attempts made by the students in forming FSs and the possible influence of transfer from L1 in the essays starting from an outline in Swedish compared to the essays written directly in English.</p><p>The findings of this study lend support to the main hypothesis. Moreover, the analysis shows that there are significant differences in the distribution and use of the different categories of formulaic language in the direct and indirect modes of writing. Results are suggestive of a more conscious and less uncertain approach in the essays starting from an outline in Swedish, however the findings may be circumstantial. Furthermore, the results indicate that the method of “warming up” in Swedish may encourage the use of combinations of words that are more conventionalized and do not always interact with syntax in a regular way. The findings also indicate that transfer is not more salient in the essays starting from an outline in Swedish if compared to the essays written directly in English, at least not in relation to the erroneous FSs found in the students’ essays.</p><p> </p><p>Keywords: <em>formulaic sequences, conventionalization, contrastive awareness, language processing, language acquisition.</em></p>

<p>The aim of this essay was to find out differences and similarities between German and Swedish surnames. The linguistic category name is basically discussed, including an elaboration of terms. The essay includes an historical overview of the development of German and Swedish surnames and an overview of the different types of surnames. It follows a discussion/summary in which differences and similarities are discussed.</p>