國立政治大學英國語文學系在職碩士班 碩士論文提要 論文名稱：高中生英文作文中情態助動詞使用之分析 指導教授：尤雪瑛博士 研究生：張翠杏撰 論文提要內容： 本研究旨在分析高中生在英文作文中使用情態助動詞之情形，並就學生使用情態助動詞之困難加以研究，以期能了解學生困難之所在並加以解決。 本研究採用質與量的分析方法。質的分析包括： (一) 情態助動詞之意義與功能； (二) 學生誤用情態助動詞之情形； (三) 影響學生誤用情態助動詞之原因。量的分析則重在研究： (一) 學生使用各個情態助動詞之頻率； (二) 學生最容易誤用之情態助動詞之頻率。 本研究結果如下：學生最常使用的情態助動詞為can和will，這兩者也最容易被誤用，學生除了會把各個情態助動詞互相替換使用之外，也會在不需要情態助動詞的情形下使用情態助動詞。造成學生誤用情態助動詞原因包括： (一) 學生誤解不同情態助動詞的用法，而把一種用法運用在其他情態助動詞上； (二) 學生把情態助動詞的用法簡化； (三) 學生受到固定用語的影響； (四) 學生受到母語的影響直接把中文翻譯成英文。 本研究最後提出在英語教學上的建議：在課堂上教授情態助動詞時，除了將各個情態助動詞不同的用法呈現，還必須比較各個情態助動詞之間相近的用法，再把這些情態助動詞放在不同的情境中呈現它們在現實生活中真正的用法與意義，期使學生能學到情態助動詞正確的用法。 / ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to analyze the use of modal verbs in students’ compositions and to understand students’ difficulty in learning and using modal verbs. Modal verbs’ surface forms and grammatical characteristics are very easy for students to remember. However, their complicated meanings and usages are somewhat difficult. This study adopts qualitative and quantitative analyses. The qualitative analysis includes: (1) the meanings and functions of modal verbs, (2) students’ misuse of modal verbs, and (3) the reasons that affect students’ misuse of modal verbs. The quantitative analysis includes: (1) the frequency of the use of every modal verb in students’ compositions, and (2) the frequency of the misuse of modal verbs. The results of this study are summarized as follows: the most often used modal verbs are can and will. Students tend to use wrong modal verbs or add modal verbs to sentences that don’t need one. The reasons affecting students’ misuse of modal verbs are: (1) students’ misunderstanding of the use of modal verbs, (2) students’ oversimplification of the meanings and functions of modal verbs, (3) the effect of frozen idiomatic expressions, and (4) the effect of students’ native languages. Finally, the study provides pedagogical suggestions and implications in teaching modal verbs. First, subtle usages and meanings of modal verbs should be presented. Second, they should be taught in different contexts. Third, apply pragmatics to the teaching of modal verbs. The goal is to help students learn authentic usages of modal verbs.

This thesis investigates whether studying through English has an effect on the written texts secondary school students produce in their first language, Spanish. Research in bilingual education has tended to focus on students‟ language proficiency and academic achievement as opposed to investigating differences in discourse norms. However, an increased awareness of the role of discourse in language use and the culturally-specific nature of discourse, along with a growing concern over the dominance of the English language in Europe and elsewhere, have widened the range of questions identified as requiring investigation in bilingual education. Popular understanding suggests that English speakers make different choices from Spanish speakers in particular rhetorical situations. Although research into these contrasts can be problematic, there is support for the existence of cultural preference in the selection of options, and specific areas of similarity and difference between Spanish and English discourse have been suggested. This study then looks at one group of secondary three (3º E.S.O.) Spanish students studying through English on a Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) programme in Spain, and compares two sets of argumentative texts written in Spanish by the CLIL students with equivalent texts written by non-CLIL students in the same school. Forty-eight texts are examined in total, and the comparison draws on previous research into discourse differences between Spanish and English texts from contrastive rhetoric, systemic functional linguistics (SFL), and other fields, using tools from SFL for the textual analysis. Areas of analysis include use of clause complexes, multiple Theme and thematic progression, and also genre structure and text organisation strategies for argumentative writing. The main contrasts are found to be in length of t-units, use of simplexes versus complexes, use of multiple Theme, and some issues of text structure. These differences largely correspond to contrasts found in studies comparing written Spanish and written English text, with the CLIL students‟ texts showing features more commonly associated with English writing. Additional data from analysis of the geography textbooks used by the CLIL and non-CLIL students, questionnaires administered to these students, and interviews with their teachers are also used to explore the possible CLIL effect on the students‟ written text. The study discusses how discourse conventions associated with English text in contrast with Spanish text may have influenced the Spanish writing of the CLIL students, considering possibilities including the effect of direct and indirect teaching, and the more general impact of the CLIL programme. Also explored is the question of whether this possible influence of English on Spanish language use is a matter for concern or not, with increased work on language and discourse awareness suggested as a potential response. Methodological issues raised through the study relating to aspects of text analysis and of data collection are also addressed.

This paper compares and contrasts how linguistic transfer has been incorporated in English course books for year 7 and year 11 in Swedish schools. This study has focused on finding explicit and implicit reference to transfer and interference in English course books for Swedish students by identifying references from the authors where they have pointed to similarities and differences between Swedish and English. The results of the study showed that comparisons between the languages were used in all books, but explicit references were more common than implicit references. Of the four different linguistic levels (pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, pragmatics) examined in this study, grammatical comparisons were the most frequent. However, the authors of the books for year 7 used more comparisons between the languages than the authors of the year 11 books. One conclusion that can be drawn from the present study is that it is up to the authors of the course books to decide to what extent they should compare and contrast the two languages, since the national curricula for the subject English give no indications of how the subject of transfer should be dealt with in language acquisition. / Den här uppsatsen jämför hur lingvistisk överföring behandlas engelska kursböcker för årskurs 7 och årskurs 11 i svenska skolor. Studien har fokuserat på att undersöka i vilken mån författarna uttryckligen eller underförstått refererat till överföring och transfer genom att identifiera var kursböckerna innehåller information om likheter och skillnader mellan svenska och engelska. Resultaten från denna studie visar att sådana jämförelser mellan språken fanns i alla böcker, men att uttrycklig jämförelse var det vanligast sättet för författarna att visa på likheter och skillnader. Av de fyra olika lingvistiska nivåer som användes i denna studie (uttal, grammatik, ordförråd, pragmatik), förekom jämförelse av grammatik mest. Författarna till böckerna för årskurs 7 använde sig mer av jämförelser mellan språken än författarna till böckerna för årskurs 11. En slutsats som man kan dra av denna studie är att det är upp till författarna själva att bestämma i vilken mån de ska jämföra de två språken, eftersom läroplanen för ämnet engelska inte ger någon information om hur överföring ska hanteras i språkinlärning.

La thèse propose une réflexion sur les possibilités et limites de la traduction du discours second (ou rapporté) en allemand et en français. Le postulat de notre analyse est la complémentarité entre la linguistique contrastive et la traductologie. La première partie pose les concepts opératoires : d'une part, elle décrit le fonctionnement énonciatif du discours second - en posant le problème de sa délimitation - et présente les principes méthodologiques différents mais convergents, dans la perspective que nous adoptons, de la linguistique contrastive et de la traductologie. La deuxième partie est consacrée à la confrontation des deux systèmes de discours second. La troisième partie est une analyse traductologique, réalisée à partir d'un corpus de textes littéraires et de presse. L'analyse révèle l'importance des registres de langue, l'impact du genre de discours et met à jour de nouveaux aspects concernant la traduction des formes indirectes libres de représentation des discours. / The thesis proposes a reflection on the possibilities and limits of the translation of reported speech in both German and French. The postulate of this study is the complementarity between contrastive linguistics and translation study. In the first part, the operational concepts are ascertained : we describe the enunciative modalities of reported speech - thereby raising the issue of its delimitation - and we present the different, yet here convergent, methodological principles that surround contrastive linguistics and translation. The second part focuses on the confrontation from the reported speech systems. The third part consists of a translation analysis and is based on a corpus of literary texts and press. The analysis sheds light on the importance of speech levels, the impact of the type of speech, and reveals new aspects about the translation of free indirect forms of speech representation.

The purpose of this thesis was to analyse the Spanish gerund and its Czech equivalents. The thesis is divided into two parts: the theoretical one and the empirical one. We mainly drew from Spanish grammar books and Czech linguistic works. The gerund and its translation equivalents were compiled from the parallel Czech-Spanish corpus InterCorp. The excerpts were analysed from the linguistic point of view in order to provide a contrastive description of the Spanish gerund and its Czech equivalent expressions. The objective of the study was to describe the different types of Czech translation equivalents and their frequency. The results of the study also reveal that translation of the Spanish gerund into Czech is closely related to the conversion of the analytic language structure into the syntactic one. Therefore, some of the specific characteristics of translation of the gerund into Czech might be assigned to the concurrence of two typologically different languages.

v anglickém jazyce: The topic of this dissertation is the past participle and its use in the contemporary Spanish language system. The character of the thesis is both theoretical and empirical. The theoretical part delineates the issue of the Spanish past participle in the context of non-finite verbs and explores the general matters of the past participle connected with its morphological and syntactic- semantical features. The empirical part consists of two case studies of selected past participle constructions, dar por + past participle a una vez + past participle, based on language research within the parallel corpus InterCorp and single language corpus CREA. The aim of the research is to identify the particular past participles forming the core of the above-mentioned constructions and, by way of contrastive analysis, describe the possibilities of expressing these constructions in the Czech language. The individual findings are quantified and documented by examples.

D.Litt. et Phil. / The purpose of this study is to establish differences and similarities between German and Zulu and to identify areas of difficulty for different groups of South African learners in order to give the language learners autonomy in determining their own learning strategies in accordance with their mother tongue and to foster a mutual understanding between different cultural groups in South Africa. Historically, German is a subject, which was taught to mainly white learners in segregated South African schools; hence research was limited to the problems of English and Afrikaans speaking learners of German as a foreign language. This study is aimed at addressing the problems that Zulu speaking learners would encounter when learning German. Since English and/or Afrikaans form part of the linguistic knowledge of these Zulu speaking students, cognizance is taken of the effects this knowledge has on the learning of German as Lx, where Lx > L3. Learners from English and Afrikaans L1 backgrounds are incorporated into the study as control groups. The error analysis that forms part of this study reveals that the language repertoire of the learners does indeed impact on language learning. This study is useful for teachers who have little or no knowledge of Zulu, but who are confronted with learners from diverse linguistic backgrounds.

My diploma thesis deal with relative adjectives and their translation. The aim of this thesis is to map out frequently used adjectives and their equivalents in Spanish. The thesis is divided into two parts: a theoretical part and a practical part. In the theoretical part, the author discusses adjectives from the perspective of Czech and Spanish grammar. In the practical part, ananalysis of specific adjectives, chosen by the author herself, is carried out. In the conclusion, findings are evaluated and the thesis is concluded on the basis of corpus analysis. The thesis is written in Czech language.\\

Neste trabalho, tratamos de uma imagem que circula em nosso país sobre o espanhol e sua aprendizagem, segundo a qual os chamados \"falsos amigos\" constituem as principais dificuldades para o brasileiro que deseja aprender essa língua estrangeira. Partimos de uma hipótese de Celada & González (2000) de que tal modo de interpretação desse processo foi inaugurado por Nascentes (1939) quem, por sua vez, recolheu em seus estudos muitas das impressões do senso comum de sua época a esse respeito. Tal tradição norteou e em grande parte norteia ainda muitos trabalhos científicos no Brasil a respeito do ensino e da aprendizagem do espanhol, os quais se baseiam, como a interpretação tradicional que lhes dá suporte, nos pressupostos teóricos do modelo da Análise Contrastiva em sua versão forte. Primeiramente fazemos uma análise dos termos mais comuns em circulação (falsos cognatos, heterosemánticos, falsos amigos), mostrando que não fazem necessariamente referência a fenômenos da mesma natureza, e posteriormente questionamos a idéia corrente de que os falsos amigos seriam o grande vilão da aprendizagem do espanhol por brasileiros. Nossa proposta nesta pesquisa é tratar a aprendizagem do espanhol por brasileiros e a formação de sentido de outra perspectiva teórica, que nos permita observar fatores que oferecem restrições às línguas e que atuam na produção dos efeitos de sentido no contato desses dois idiomas; esses fatores serão, essencialmente, a história e as representações sociais. / The present investigation refers to the traditional perception that exists in Brazil about the Spanish language and its learning by Brazilians. In such perception, the uttermost obstacle that any Brazilian must overcome in his process of learning the Spanish language are the denominated \"false friends\". According to Celada & González (2000), such perception has been introduced in Brazil by Nascentes (1939), in whose work one is able to find most of the common sense and common lore opinions about the learning of the Spanish language by Brazilians. Such perception has ever since dominated most of the Brazilian academic investigation about the teaching and learning of the Spanish language, which theoretic basis can be found in the \"strong\" version of the Contrastive Analysis. This investigation begins with the analysis of the terms most commonly used by the academic investigation (such as false friends, false cognates, heterosemánticos), in order to demonstrate that such terms do not refer to the same phenomena. In the sequence, the perception that the \"false friends\" are the greatest villain in the learning of the Spanish language by Brazilians is put in doubt. The final objective of this investigation is to study the process of learning of the Spanish language by Brazilians, and from another theoretic perspective, to analyse the production of meaning that allows to determine the factors (specially history and social representation) which restrict the languages, and influence the production of the meaning in the contact between Brazilian Portuguese and Spanish.

Neste trabalho, tratamos de uma imagem que circula em nosso país sobre o espanhol e sua aprendizagem, segundo a qual os chamados \"falsos amigos\" constituem as principais dificuldades para o brasileiro que deseja aprender essa língua estrangeira. Partimos de uma hipótese de Celada & González (2000) de que tal modo de interpretação desse processo foi inaugurado por Nascentes (1939) quem, por sua vez, recolheu em seus estudos muitas das impressões do senso comum de sua época a esse respeito. Tal tradição norteou e em grande parte norteia ainda muitos trabalhos científicos no Brasil a respeito do ensino e da aprendizagem do espanhol, os quais se baseiam, como a interpretação tradicional que lhes dá suporte, nos pressupostos teóricos do modelo da Análise Contrastiva em sua versão forte. Primeiramente fazemos uma análise dos termos mais comuns em circulação (falsos cognatos, heterosemánticos, falsos amigos), mostrando que não fazem necessariamente referência a fenômenos da mesma natureza, e posteriormente questionamos a idéia corrente de que os falsos amigos seriam o grande vilão da aprendizagem do espanhol por brasileiros. Nossa proposta nesta pesquisa é tratar a aprendizagem do espanhol por brasileiros e a formação de sentido de outra perspectiva teórica, que nos permita observar fatores que oferecem restrições às línguas e que atuam na produção dos efeitos de sentido no contato desses dois idiomas; esses fatores serão, essencialmente, a história e as representações sociais. / The present investigation refers to the traditional perception that exists in Brazil about the Spanish language and its learning by Brazilians. In such perception, the uttermost obstacle that any Brazilian must overcome in his process of learning the Spanish language are the denominated \"false friends\". According to Celada & González (2000), such perception has been introduced in Brazil by Nascentes (1939), in whose work one is able to find most of the common sense and common lore opinions about the learning of the Spanish language by Brazilians. Such perception has ever since dominated most of the Brazilian academic investigation about the teaching and learning of the Spanish language, which theoretic basis can be found in the \"strong\" version of the Contrastive Analysis. This investigation begins with the analysis of the terms most commonly used by the academic investigation (such as false friends, false cognates, heterosemánticos), in order to demonstrate that such terms do not refer to the same phenomena. In the sequence, the perception that the \"false friends\" are the greatest villain in the learning of the Spanish language by Brazilians is put in doubt. The final objective of this investigation is to study the process of learning of the Spanish language by Brazilians, and from another theoretic perspective, to analyse the production of meaning that allows to determine the factors (specially history and social representation) which restrict the languages, and influence the production of the meaning in the contact between Brazilian Portuguese and Spanish.