Aedes mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of several arboviruses throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world. In the Americas, Aedes aegypti is the most competent vector of dengue, chikungunya, Zika, and yellow fever. With up to 400 million cases globally each year, dengue fever is the fastest growing vector-borne disease in the world, and it has become an increasingly significant risk to global health. In the Western Hemisphere, dengue, and more recently chikungunya and Zika, exists throughout much of Latin America and the Caribbean. Both diseases are spread via Aedes mosquitoes and both constitute major health risks in Costa Rica. A dengue outbreak in Costa Rica in 2013 was the largest epidemic in the country since the return of the disease in 1993. Moreover, between 2014 and 2015 there was a 54.9% increase in dengue cases in Costa Rica, further demonstrating the relevancy of research on mosquito-borne diseases. Given this context, this study employs qualitative methods to critically investigate measures to combat Aedes mosquito-borne diseases in Costa Rica. Data were collected using household interviews (n = 80); semi-structured key informant interviews with public health officials, researchers, nonprofit organizations, and community leaders (n = 22); and a focus group discussion in each of two study areas. The results provide broad and place-specific information about mosquito control efforts and other actions deployed in Costa Rica to mitigate mosquito-borne diseases. The data reveal differences in perceptions and disease incidence among household interviewees as well as where households source information about mosquitoes and mosquito-borne diseases. Varying degrees of knowledge on mosquitoes and mosquito-borne diseases were uncovered across the study sites, as were differing attitudes among the general population regarding mosquito control techniques (e.g., fumigation, education campaigns, and household visits by public health officials). Additionally, data indicated a gap in knowledge regarding the ability of the public to report mosquito-related problems to health authorities. Households also exhibited discrepancies in knowledge pertaining to chikungunya transmission and details about the vector. / Master of Science

The primary objective of the international initiative, Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+), is to conserve carbon by protecting forests and/or planting trees. The World Bank's Forest Partnership Carbon Facility (FPCF) introduced the REDD+ program to Costa Rica in 2008 and consultation with key stakeholders has been ongoing since. The major participants involved in the program include small landowners, representatives of the timber industry, and indigenous nations. Notwithstanding some native groups' opposition to and misunderstanding of the REDD+ program, the Costa Rican government signed an agreement with the World Bank (WB) in 2013 guaranteeing the sale of up to $63 million in carbon credits through the REDD+ program (World Bank, 2013). The government of Costa Rica has plans to continue implementing the initiative, despite the intense opposition of a number of Bribris, an indigenous group located in Talamanca in the eastern portion of the country near the border with Panama. The Bribri are also the largest native population in Costa Rica. This inquiry samples indigenous peoples' perspectives, specifically the Bribris from Talamanca and the Ngäbes from Abrojos Montezuma, concerning key elements of the REDD+ program to understand more fully why they perceive the program the way they do. The principal findings of this study concerning those views include the following: the government has violated indigenous people's rights throughout the REDD+ implementation process, many interview respondents remarked that they lacked information about REDD+, feared privatization of their land, and were opposed to the initiative's commodification of natural resources. These results illuminate key policy and implementation concerns that could inform government and World Bank policy, while also providing study participants an opportunity to exercise individual agency concerning the topic. This research contributes to the growing body of literature about REDD+ by providing the first-hand perceptions of members of Costa Rican indigenous communities of the initiative and their stated reasons for those views. / Master of Urban and Regional Planning / The main goal of the international initiative, Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+), is to conserve carbon by protecting forests and/or planting trees. The World Bank’s Forest Partnership Carbon Facility (FPCF) introduced the REDD+ program to Costa Rica in 2008 and has engaged in a process of consultation and information sessions with small landowners and representatives of the timber industry and indigenous nations. The Costa Rican government signed an agreement with the World Bank (WB) in 2013 guaranteeing the sale of up to $63 million in carbon credits via the program and the government appears to be relying on indigenous peoples’ land because indigenous territories comprise some 20% of the country’s forested lands (Government of Costa Rica, 2015; World Bank, 2013). Moreover, some native groups, including the Bribris, the largest indigenous group in the nation, located in Talamanca in the eastern portion of the country near the border with Panama, have publicly opposed doing so (World Bank, 2013). This study explored indigenous peoples’ perspectives, specifically the Bribris from Talamanca and the Ngäbes from Abrojos Montezuma, concerning key elements of the REDD+ program to understand better why they perceive the program as they do. Key findings from those interviews include the fact that the government has violated indigenous people’s rights throughout the REDD+ implementation process and that many native residents lacked information about the program and feared privatization of their land. In addition, many of those interviewed were opposed to the initiative’s basic premise; the commodification of natural resources. These results highlight key REDD+ policy design and implementation concerns in Costa Rica that could inform both government and World Bank policy in that nation. More generally, this research contributes to a growing body of literature concerning REDD+ and indigenous peoples. The findings offered here may now be compared to those of other analyses investigating the purport of this initiative from the vantage point of native peoples of other developing nations.

No description available.

Le commerce équitable (CE) a connu une forte croissance depuis les années 90. Malgré ce succès, leCE fait l'objet de différentes critiques, notamment concernant sa proximité avec les grands groupesagroalimentaires et la grande distribution. Ce rapprochement caractérise, pour certains, une perte desvaleurs éthiques du CE qui intégrerait des valeurs capitalistes. Or, le CE s'est construit en réaction à cesvaleurs capitalistes. La littérature est importante concernant ces tensions au Nord mais au Sud il estgénéralement question de l'impact du CE sur les producteurs.Nous proposons dans ce travail de nous interroger sur les tensions pouvant exister dans le systèmeCE au Sud, avec une entrée par les coopératives certifiées. Au cours de trois séries d'enquêtes auprès descoopératives de café certifiées par FLO au Costa Rica, nous avons réunis des données quantitatives etqualitatives. A travers le champ de l'économie des conventions, nous montrons que les coopérativescertifiées(i) s'inscrivent dans des mondes différents avec une forte disparité concernant lesmondes civique (collectif) et domestique (traditionnel),(ii) présentent des conventions d'effort très différenciées.Ces éléments expliquent un engagement hétérogène des coopératives dans le commerce équitable :certaines se certifient en portant des croyances fortes sur un lien plus rapproché entre producteurs etconsommateurs quand d'autres ne voient dans le CE qu'une opportunité marketing. Les valeurs marchandessont cependant communes à toutes les coopératives. Nous achevons notre travail en proposant des élémentsde réflexions quant au compromis qui semble s'être créé autour du monde marchand dans le système CE.Ce compromis remet en cause le contrat moral passé dans le cadre du CE entre consommateurs etproducteurs et interroge fortement sur l'avenir du CE. / Fair trade (FT) has known a strong growth since the 1990's. In spite of its success, FT is the objectof different criticisms, notably concerning its closeness with big companies and supermarket distribution.This proximity characterizes, for some people, a loss of the ethical values and an integration of capitalistvalues: the problem is that FT was built in reaction to these capitalist functioning. Literature is importantconcerning these tensions in the North, whereas in the South it is generally a matter of the impact of FT on producers.The purpose of this research is to analyze the tensions that can exist in the FT system in the South,with an entrance by the certified cooperatives. In the course of three series of inquiries about the coffeecooperatives certified by FLO in Costa Rica, we collected quantitative and qualitative data. Across the field of the conventions economy, we show that the certified cooperatives:(i) register in the different worlds with a strong difference concerning the worlds civic(collective) and (traditional) servant,(ii) have very differentiated effort conventions.These elements explain a heterogeneous commitment of cooperatives in FT: some people certify bycarrying strong beliefs in a closer link between producers and consumers when others see a marketingopportunity. We finish our thesis by offering thinking elements about the moral contract passed as part ofthe IT between consumers and producers, and deeply questioning the future of FT.

A presente pesquisa de mestrado, trata sobre um processo coletivo de construção de uma memória política sobre ações de solidariedade na Costa Rica durante os últimos anos da ditadura militar somozista, periodo identificado como o mais sangrento desse capítulo da história política recente da Nicarágua. Trata-se de um estudo qualitativo que tem como base para suas análises, as narrativas de 13 mulheres, da Costa Rica e da Nicarágua, que foram coletadas por méio de uma entrevista semiestruturada, aplicada no país de origem de cada uma delas. Para uma melhor compreensão sobre o contexto no qual se deram as ações de solidariedade, apresentamos brevemente um capítulo histórico com fatos relevantes sobre a historia política de ambos países para assim entender como na Nicarágua se instaura uma ditadura e quais eram as características da Costa Rica para que a solidariedade, com o povo nicaraguense, acontecesse no país. Em relação à memória, trouxemos a autores contemporâneos que dialogam com os clássicos, e nos apresentam as formas como ela tem sido estudada através da história das ciências sociais. Para posteriormente incorporar um enfoque psicopolítico, que nos permite desdobrar a memória na sua dimensão política, e assim entender essas ações de solidariedade como formas de participação política. A memória, desta forma, constitui-se como um lugar de resistência em que mulheres dos dois países, imersas em diferentes grupos políticos e condições socioeconômicas, resignificam e desconstróem seu lugar na história e explicitam sua função como agente coletivo de mudança política / This master\'s research deals with a collective process of building political memory, about solidarity actions in Costa Rica while the last years of the Somoza\'s military dictatorship, identified as the most bloody period of this chapter of the recent Nicaragua\'s political history. It\'s a qualitative study that analyses the narratives of 13 women from Costa Rica and Nicaragua, collected by semistructured interviews, applied in the country of each one of them. For a better comprehension about the context in which did happen the solidarity actions, we present a historic chapter with important facts about the political history of both nations, for then, understand how was established a dictatorship in Nicaragua and what are the particularities of Costa Rica that made possible the solidarity of ticos with nicas. Regarding memory, we brought the contemporary writers who dialogue with classics, showing us the ways in which memory has been studied throughout the history of the social sciences. To further embed a psychopolitical approach that allows us to deploy memory in its political dimension, and thus to understand these solidarity actions as forms of political participation. Memory, therefore, is constituted as a place of resistance in which women of the two countries, immersed in different political groups and socioeconomic conditions, deconstruct and reframe their place in history and explain its function as a collective agent of political change.

A presente pesquisa de mestrado, trata sobre um processo coletivo de construção de uma memória política sobre ações de solidariedade na Costa Rica durante os últimos anos da ditadura militar somozista, periodo identificado como o mais sangrento desse capítulo da história política recente da Nicarágua. Trata-se de um estudo qualitativo que tem como base para suas análises, as narrativas de 13 mulheres, da Costa Rica e da Nicarágua, que foram coletadas por méio de uma entrevista semiestruturada, aplicada no país de origem de cada uma delas. Para uma melhor compreensão sobre o contexto no qual se deram as ações de solidariedade, apresentamos brevemente um capítulo histórico com fatos relevantes sobre a historia política de ambos países para assim entender como na Nicarágua se instaura uma ditadura e quais eram as características da Costa Rica para que a solidariedade, com o povo nicaraguense, acontecesse no país. Em relação à memória, trouxemos a autores contemporâneos que dialogam com os clássicos, e nos apresentam as formas como ela tem sido estudada através da história das ciências sociais. Para posteriormente incorporar um enfoque psicopolítico, que nos permite desdobrar a memória na sua dimensão política, e assim entender essas ações de solidariedade como formas de participação política. A memória, desta forma, constitui-se como um lugar de resistência em que mulheres dos dois países, imersas em diferentes grupos políticos e condições socioeconômicas, resignificam e desconstróem seu lugar na história e explicitam sua função como agente coletivo de mudança política / This master\'s research deals with a collective process of building political memory, about solidarity actions in Costa Rica while the last years of the Somoza\'s military dictatorship, identified as the most bloody period of this chapter of the recent Nicaragua\'s political history. It\'s a qualitative study that analyses the narratives of 13 women from Costa Rica and Nicaragua, collected by semistructured interviews, applied in the country of each one of them. For a better comprehension about the context in which did happen the solidarity actions, we present a historic chapter with important facts about the political history of both nations, for then, understand how was established a dictatorship in Nicaragua and what are the particularities of Costa Rica that made possible the solidarity of ticos with nicas. Regarding memory, we brought the contemporary writers who dialogue with classics, showing us the ways in which memory has been studied throughout the history of the social sciences. To further embed a psychopolitical approach that allows us to deploy memory in its political dimension, and thus to understand these solidarity actions as forms of political participation. Memory, therefore, is constituted as a place of resistance in which women of the two countries, immersed in different political groups and socioeconomic conditions, deconstruct and reframe their place in history and explain its function as a collective agent of political change.

Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Enfermagem, Florianópolis, 2016. / Made available in DSpace on 2016-10-18T03:05:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 344028.pdf: 2177630 bytes, checksum: 5224c90db8e3c95b51877519a1f5d960 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016 / Pesquisa qualitativa, multicêntrica, de cunho sóciohistórico, que objetivou compreender as representações sociais do sexo, corpo, gênero e sexualidade na perspectiva de pessoas transexuais do Brasil, Canadá e Costa Rica. Utilizou-se a Teoria das Representações Sociais como referencial teórico e as Histórias de Vida completas, como técnica processual para coletar as informações entre 84 participantes: Brasil (35), Canadá (14) e Costa Rica (35). Após a entrevista aplicou-se a técnica de desenho livre com as/os participantes. Adicionalmente, realizaram-se três grupos focais com o intuito de validar as análises preliminares. Os dados seguiram uma análise de conteúdo comparativa e interpretativa, sendo organizados no software ALCESTE. As associações livres foram resumidas em uma matriz dividida em tópicos de acordo com os principais significados que seus desenhos representavam e consideradas na etapa final das análises realizadas no ALCESTE e na Análise de Conteúdo. Os resultados foram apresentados na forma de cinco manuscritos. O primeiro manuscrito objetivou analisar as representações sociais do sexo e gênero. Foram identificadas duas representações complementares relacionadas ao sexo: O sexo como imposição categórica natural lacrada e adquirida (irremediavelmente) ao nascer e; O sexo como elemento que rotula, condena e diferencia as pessoas. No gênero, observou-se uma única representação vinculada a elaborações sintético-sociais associadas ao (necro-bio)poder, à cisnormatividade e à cultura. O segundo manuscrito objetivou analisar as representações do corpo. Os dados desvelaram uma única representação social com duas matrizes de discurso: o corpo como um objeto inconcluso, transitório e maleável, enquanto a segunda relaciona o corpo como uma instituição própria, regulada e controlada pelos outros. A discussão esteve centrada na análise do corpo trans como um objeto sujeito à domesticação e (des)naturalização pública. O terceiro manuscrito objetivou analisar as representações da sexualidade. Os resultados desvelaram uma representação ligada ao plano individual com elementos vinculantes ao prazer e ao desejo; e uma segunda representação ligada ao âmbito coletivo com elementos associados ao controle social e à heteronormatividade. Os repertórios interpretativos permitiram declarar que as/os participantes constroem seus relatos de sexualidade num contexto necro-opressivo. O manuscrito quatro objetivou analisar a relação entre as políticas sociais cisnormativas com a morte (física e simbólica) das pessoas trans. Desvela-se a necropolítica trans como uma prática tecnológica ininterrupta de violência estrutural e institucional contra o dispositivo da transexualidade, que considera a morte já não como um fenômeno meramente biológico ou natural, mas moral e político. O quinto manuscrito objetivou realizar uma análise das políticas trans-inclusivas entre Brasil, Canadá e Costa Rica. Os resultados revelaram uma prevalente invisibilização das necessidades trans e a falta de implementação de políticas públicas entre os contextos pesquisados. Conclui-se que o sexo, a sexualidade e o corpo são instituições efêmeras e pré-discursivas que se materializam através de forças necropolíticas e regulatórias que produzem possibilidades inteligíveis. O gênero apareceu como entidade construída pela repetição performática e processual de atos monótonos em tempos e contextos definidos. Finalmente, esta pesquisa confirmou a tese de que as representações sociais do sexo, corpo, gênero e sexualidade entre as pessoas trans, são tecnologias socioculturais e biológicas complexas, mediadas pela histórica e prevalente necropolítica heterocispatriarcal, que não faz distinção do contexto físico-territorial.<br> / Abstract : A qualitative and socio-historical research aimed at understanding the social representations of sex, body, gender and sexuality in the perspective of trans individuals of Brazil, Canada and Costa Rica through their life stories. Social Representations theory was used as theoretical framework. Data was collected among 84 trans people from Brazil, Canada and Costa Rica during 2014-2015. The semi-structured interview script was supplemented with free drawing technique. Data was organized in the ALCESTE software and then compared and analyzed according to Content Analysis. The results were presented in the form of four manuscripts. In the manuscript entitled Social representations of sex and gender among trans identified individuals: About techno-natural constructions and geographies of power, were identified two complementary representations related to sex, the first one called Sex as a natural imposition, wax-sealed and acquired (inevitably) at birth and the second one was denominated Sex as an element that tags and differentiates people. With regards gender, a unique representation appeared mainly linked to social-synthetic elaborations associated with the cisnormative and cultural power. It is concluded that gender and sex are organizational and cognitive, natural and artificial constructions, mediated by the cispatriarcal (necrobio) power. The following manuscript entitled Bodies in transit: Spaces, emotions and representations that (dis)construct realities, revealed a single representation with two elementary context units. The first one associated the body with an unfinished and transient object, while the second one relates the body with a personal institution but controlled by others desires. The article concludes that the body is a fickle, ephemeral, transformable and crossed institution marked by the imprints of a specific historical context. In the next manuscript, titled Trans(itable) sexualities: about pleasures, desires and heteronormativity, the results revealed one social representation linked to individual level. This representation is related to pleasure and desire elements; and a second representation is linked to the collective level with elements associated with social control and heteronormativity. The interpretative repertoires of these social representation leads to the conclusion that the participants build their stories of sexuality in an oppressive context. Finally, in the manuscript entitled Trans necropolitics: Dialogues about power devices, death and invisibility in contemporary times, trans necropolitics is revealed as an uninterrupted technology of structural and institutional violence against the device of transsexuality, which considers death not only as a biological phenomenon, but moral, social and political. Through this research it is possible to affirm the thesis that social representations of sex, body, gender and sexuality among trans people are complex sociocultural and biological technologies, mediated by the historical and still prevalent heterocispatriarcal policy, which does not distinguish between physical contexts and that this policy uses strategies of necro-biopower in order to control and to achieve the expansion of its own restrictive ideology.

Les pertes de récolte dues aux ravageurs et aux maladies constituent une menace sérieuse pour les revenus et la sécurité alimentaire de milliers de familles rurales dans le monde entier. L'évaluation de ces pertes de récolte (baisse de rendement et préjudice économique) et de leurs causes est nécessaire pour améliorer la mise au point d'agroécosystèmes capables d'offrir de bons rendements de culture, une régulation des ravageurs et des maladies et d'autres services écosystémiques. Ce mémoire de doctorat vise à contribuer à la recherche dans le domaine des pertes de récolte en proposant des approches expérimentales et de modélisation susceptibles d'être utilisées pour estimer les pertes primaires et secondaires subies dans les cultures pérennes, et analyser leurs causes. La culture pérenne étudiée est celle du caféier à Turrialba au Costa Rica, où la culture du café se pratique dans des plantations qui vont de la monoculture à pleine exposition solaire à des systèmes agroforestiers hautement diversifiés, et qui sont soumises à une gamme de situations de production (topolimat, fertilité du sol, types d'ombrage) et de stratégies de gestion (pratiques culturales et intrants). Les trois questions de recherche principales ont été les suivantes : Quel est l'impact des stratégies de gestion et des situations de production sur les ravageurs et les maladies et les rendements en café ? Comment les pertes de rendement en café associées à des profils de dégâts donnés varient-elles en fonction des stratégies de gestion et des situations de production ? Quels types d'agro-écosystèmes à base de caféiers permettent de minimiser les pertes en café (baisse de rendement et préjudice économique) et de maximiser les avantages globaux retirés (services écosystémiques) ? / Crop losses due to pests and diseases are a major threat to incomes and food security of thousands of rural families worldwide. The assessment of crop losses (yield and economic losses) and their causes is needed to improve the development of agroecosystems capable to offer good crop yields, regulation of pests and diseases, and other ecosystem services. This doctoral research aimed to contribute to the research field of crop losses, by providing experimental and modeling approaches that could be used in perennial crops to estimate primary and secondary losses and analyze their causes. We worked in a perennial crop such as coffee, in Turrialba, Costa Rica, where coffee is grown in plantations from monocultures at full sun exposure to highly diversified agroforestry systems, and under a range of production situations (topoclimate, soil fertility, types of shade) and management strategies (agricultural practices and inputs). The three main research questions were: What is the impact of management strategies and production situations on pests and diseases and coffee yields? How do coffee yield losses caused by injury profiles vary in function of management strategies and production situations? Which types of coffee agroecosystems are capable to obtain the lowest coffee losses (yield and economic) and highest overall benefits (ecosystem services)? This research was developed through two experimental designs. The first was an experimental coffee parcel under controlled conditions (three-year experiment) to quantify primary and secondary yield losses by comparison of treatments, and to identify the main predictors of yield losses by structural equation modeling. The second experimental design was based on surveys in a coffee research plot network (coffee plots of smallholder farmers), where, during two years, we measured indicators of yields and indicators of four ecosystem services: regulation of pests and diseases, provisioning of agroforestry products, maintenance of soil fertility, and carbon sequestration. Yield losses in this network were estimated through modeling using the predictors identified in the experimental coffee parcel. Analyses of data included several statistical techniques, from analysis of variances, linear regressions to multivariate techniques. The results were organized in four manuscripts, and then discussed integrally. The main findings were: i) Both production situations and management strategies determine coffee yield and pest and disease injuries, effects of interactions altitude x management x types of shade must be considered; ii) Injury profiles depend on particular combinations of production situations and management strategies, with impacts on yield losses especially in a year of high coffee production (primary yield losses), but compromising also the yields of the next year (secondary yield losses); iii) Diversified agroforestry systems have better chances to regulate pests and diseases (reduce yield and economic losses), and simultaneously provide goods for family benefits, maintain soil fertility, and increase carbon sequestration, without implying trade-offs among these ecosystem services. The main prospects of this research are related to perform similar studies in coffee and other perennials at regional levels, develop an injury profile simulator for coffee, and prototyping of coffee agroforestry systems to optimize the provision of multiple ecosystem services.

The scholarly tradition in urban policy analysis holds that a variety of economic, social and political background factors influence the nature and amount of output by the policymaking system. Here a number of these factors such as elections and parties, structure of the national economy and age and sex composition of the population are examined to determine their effect on public housing and local government revenue policy in two Central American urban centers. San Jose, Costa Rica and San Salvador, El Salvador were chosen for the study because they are in the same size range, both are capital (and primate) cities and both have been growing rapidly in recent years. Moreover, the cities exist in radically different sociopolitical milieux. With such characteristics as size and primacy held constant, it was felt that variations in policy output could be linked to and at least partially explained by the political, social and economic differences. For a variety of systemic and historical reasons, urban public housing is provided in both countries by autonomous agencies of the national governments. Their operational policies and programs are compared. Two major activities in the field of municipal revenue are traced through the policymaking process from their genesis: a successful effort to install parking meters in San Jose, and an unsuccessful attempt at overall tax reform in San Salvador. In neither policy area, public housing nor municipal revenue, was the original hypothesis sustained. No important differences in policy output between San Jose and San Salvador could be identified. Consequently, there were no variations to be explained by the diversity in social, economic and political background factors. Nonetheless, these factors are considered in detail, along with the nature of the policymaking process in the two cities. Finally, some suggestions are offered as to why San Jose and San Salvador exhibit these similarities in policy product in spite of their many social, political and economic dissimilarities.

Tropische Nebelwälder gehören zu den am meisten bedrohten Ökosystemen der Erde. Neben dem Schutz ist für den Erhalt des Lebensraumes tropischer Nebelwald dringend die Restauration ehemaliger, degradierter Nebelwaldflächen nötig. Leider sind die bisher erprobten Verfahren zu allgemein gehalten, um am jeweiligen Restaurationsstandort erfolgreich angewendet werden zu können. Zudem ist das derzeitige wissenschaftliche Erkenntnisvermögen über den Sukzessionsablauf und die Wuchseigenschaften der vorkommenden Baumarten unbefriedigend. Ziel der Untersuchung war daher eine Bewertung der Eignung von Baumarten und waldbaulichen Verfahren zur Anlage von Restaurationsflächen im montanen Eichennebelwald Costa Ricas. Das Untersuchungsgebiet lag in den Waldungen des Cloudbridge Reservates nahe dem Ort San Gerardo de Rivas. Als Versuchsflächenstandort wurde eine 1,05 Hektar große, auf einer Höhe von 1.828 bis 1.891 Meter gelegene, um 35 Grad geneigte Hangfläche mit einer Ausrichtung von Nordost bis Nordwest ermittelt. Es wurden 20 quadratische Parzellen mit einer Seitenlänge von 18 Metern errichtet, auf denen vier waldbauliche Verfahren und zwölf Baumarten mit Hilfe der statistischen Verfahren Regressionsanalyse und Kruskal-Wallis-Test bewertet wurden. Nach Feststellen der Degradationsstufe wurden die Restaurationsverfahren Framework Species (Verfahren 1) und Nurse Trees (Verfahren 2) ausgewählt. Weiterhin wurde eine Kombination der beiden Verfahren (Verfahren 3) und die natürliche Sukzession (Verfahren 0) untersucht. Datengrundlage bildeten die in den Jahren 2008, 2009, 2010 und 2012 aufgenommenen Werte für Baumhöhe, Wurzelhals- und Brusthöhendurchmesser, Kronenradius, Bodenbedeckung, Stammfußposition, Beschattung und Vitalität. Die Verfahren 1, 2 und 3 weisen bereits in den ersten vier Wuchsjahren gute Bedingungen für die natürliche Etablierung von Baumarten auf. In Verfahren 0 siedelten sich keine naturverjüngten Baumarten an. Verfahren 0, in dem die natürliche Sukzession ablaufen kann, ist für eine zügige Restauration im Untersuchungsgebiet aufgrund fehlender Naturverjüngung restaurationsrelevanter Baumarten ungeeignet. Die Verfahren 1 bis 3 sind zur Anlage von Restaurationsflächen unterschiedlich gut geeignet. In Verfahren 2 werden die höchsten Wuchsleistungen erreicht. Es ist aber aufgrund der hohen Individuensterblichkeit und geringen Verdrängung von Gräsern und Farnen am wenigsten für die Anlage von Restaurationsflächen geeignet. Weniger Individuensterblichkeit, bessere Beschattungswirkung und höhere Anziehungskraft auf samenverbreitende Tierarten wurden bei Verfahren 1 beobachtet. Verfahren 3 kombiniert die guten Eigenschaften von Verfahren 1 und 2, weswegen es für die Restauration im Untersuchungsgebiet am besten geeignet ist. Gräser und Farne werden ausreichend verdrängt, eine hohe vertikale Bestandesstruktur wird erreicht und die Individuensterblichkeit ist geringer als in Verfahren 2, so dass mit diesem Verfahren eine gute Grundlage für die natürliche Etablierung restaurationsrelevanter Baumarten geschaffen wird. Voraussetzung für eine gelungene Restauration ist bei den Verfahren 1, 2 und 3 die Beachtung der Ansprüche der jeweiligen Baumarten an die Exposition und die Wasserversorgung. Bis auf die Baumart Gordonia fruticosa sind alle weiteren untersuchten Baumarten für die Anlage von Restaurationsflächen geeignet. Vorteilhaft ist in jedem Fall die Pflanzung in Baumartenmischung. Die Baumart Cecropia polyphlebia sollte gruppenweise in Mischpflanzungen eingebracht werden. Alle weiteren Baumarten bevorzugen oder vertragen eine einzelbaumweise Mischung. Alnus acuminata und Inga oerstediana sind selbst schattenunverträglich und müssen daher mit langsamer wachsenden Baumarten, wie Quercus rapurahuensis oder Billia hippocastanum, kombiniert werden. Für die Position Senke sind alle Baumarten, mit Ausnahme von Alnus acuminata und der oben genannten Baumart Gordonia fruticosa, geeignet. Einschränkungen gibt es für die Positionen Nordosthang und Nordhang, an denen nur die Baumarten Alnus acuminata, Billia hippocastanum, Inga oerstediana, Quercus rapurahuensis und Ulmus mexicana gepflanzt werden sollten. Viburnum costaricanum kann ebenfalls am Nordhang eingesetzt werden. Unter sehr hohem Pflegeaufwand ist auch die Pflanzung von Sapium pachystachis an Nordost- und Nordhang möglich. Um Restauration im montanen Eichennebelwald Costa Ricas in Zukunft zielführend umzusetzen, wurden Pflanzschemata entwickelt, die auf Verfahren 3 basieren und die die Ansprüche der einzelnen Baumarten an Exposition und Wasserversorgung berücksichtigen. Die Pflanzung nach diesen Schemata bewirkt möglichst geringe Individuensterblichkeiten, hohe Wuchsleistungen und Vitalitäten. Ebenfalls wird dadurch eine hohe vertikale Struktur und Kronenüberdeckung des Bodens erreicht, um gute Voraussetzungen für das Anwachsen von Naturverjüngung zu gewährleisten.