De nombreuses études suggèrent que linhibition de la voie alterne du complément de lhôte est nécessaire aux parasites hématophages pour leur permettre daccomplir leur repas sanguin. Une revue décrivant ces études a été publiée dans Developmental and Comparative Immunology (Schroeder et al., (2009) Dev. Comp. Immunol. 33, 5-13). Plusieurs études suggèrent que linhibition de la voie alterne de lhôte par les protéines salivaires de tiques est importante pour lacquisition du repas sanguin et la transmission subséquente de pathogènes à lhôte infesté. Confortant cette hypothèse, une protéine salivaire capable dinhiber la voie alterne du complément a été clonée chez la tique américaine Ixodes scapularis (Valenzuela et al., (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275, 18717-18723). Cette protéine, appelée Isac, ne présente aucune homologie avec les autres molécules anti-complément connues à ce jour, suggérant que cette protéine a été acquise au cours de lévolution par un mécanisme dévolution convergente. En plus de cet aspect fondamental, Isac représente un candidat antigénique prometteur pour le développement dun vaccin anti-tique potentiellement capable dinduire le rejet de la tique et/ou de prévenir la transmission des pathogènes. Le but initial de cette thèse était didentifier le ou les homologue(s) de la protéine Isac de la tique américaine Ixodes scapularis chez la tique européenne Ixodes ricinus. De façon intéressante, deux séquences différentes ont été isolées du transcriptome des glandes salivaires de la tique I. ricinus (Daix et al., (2007) Insect Mol. Biol. 16 (2), 155-166). Lexpression de ces séquences a révélé quelles codent pour des protéines secrétées capables dinhiber la voie alterne du complément. Ces protéines ont été appelées IRAC I et II pour « Ixodes ricinus anti-complement protein I and II ». La caractérisation des IRACs à laide danticorps monoclonaux a permis de révéler que ces deux protéines sont exprimées de façon constitutive au sein des glandes salivaires de la tique Ixodes ricinus et sont sur-exprimées au cours du repas sanguin. Létude de lexpression des protéines IRAC I et IRAC II au sein de la population dIxodes ricinus a révélé que ces deux protéines sont des paralogues codés par des gènes différents et non par des allèles dun même locus. Enfin, des analyses phylogéniques portant sur les différentes séquences codant pour les protéines homologues à Isac isolées chez les tiques Ixodes scapularis, Ixodes ricinus et Ixodes pacificus ont révélé que les tiques appartenant au complexe Ixodes ricinus codent pour une famille encore non décrite de molécules anti complément qui se sont diversifiées au cours de lévolution par un processus de sélection darwinienne positive. Les analyses phylogéniques des IRACs suggèrent que ces séquences ont subi une diversification par un processus de pression de sélection darwinienne positive, menant probablement à des molécules possédant des propriétés biologiques différentes. Dans la seconde étude, nous avons testé lhypothèse de travail selon laquelle chaque paralogue pourrait posséder des activités inhibitrices différentes à lencontre du complément de différentes espèces dhôtes naturels, contribuant ainsi à élargir le spectre dhôte des tiques I. ricinus. Les résultats obtenus démontrent que cette hypothèse est correcte (Schroeder et al., (2007) Microbes Infect. 9 (2), 247-250). Dans la troisième et dernière étude de ce manuscrit, nous avons testé le potentiel des protéines IRACs comme candidat antigénique pour le développement dun vaccin anti tique. Des recombinants de lherpèsvirus bovin 4 (BoHV-4) exprimant IRAC I ou IRAC II ont été produits. De façon intéressante, nous avons observé que bien que les recombinants BoHV-4 expriment de hauts taux de protéines IRACs fonctionnelles in vitro, les lapins immunisés à laide des recombinants BoHV-4 exprimant les IRACs ne développent pas de réponse humorale détectable à lencontre des transgènes. Dans le but daugmenter limmunogénicité des IRACs exprimés comme transgène, une seconde génération de recombinants BoHV-4 a été produite. Ceux-ci induisent lexpression des IRACs sous la forme de protéines de fusion transmembranaires à la surface des cellules infectées. Linoculation de ces recombinants à des lapins a engendré le développement dune forte réponse humorale à lencontre des IRACs. Néanmoins, cette réponse immune na pas engendré deffet majeur sur le repas sanguin de femelles Ixodes ricinus placées sur les lapins immunisés. / An increasing number of studies demonstrate that inhibition of host complement activation is crucial for completion of the blood feeding process of hematophagous parasites. A review of these studies has been published in Developmental and Comparative Immunology (Schroeder et al., (2009) Dev. Comp. Immunol. 33, 5-13). Several observations suggest that inhibition of the host complement alternative pathway by tick salivary proteins is crucial for the achievement of blood feeding and efficient transmission of the pathogens transmitted by the parasite. Strongly supporting this conclusion, a salivary protein able to inhibit the alternative pathway was cloned from the American tick Ixodes scapularis (Valenzuela et al., (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275, 18717-18723). Interestingly, this molecule, termed Isac, has no similarity to any previously reported anti-complement molecules suggesting that it has been acquired through a mechanism of convergent evolution. In addition to this fundamental aspect, Isac is also a promising candidate antigen for the development of an anti-tick vaccine potentially able to induce the reject of the tick and/or to prevent the transmission of the pathogens. The initial goal of the present work was to clone the orthologue of Isac from the European tick Ixodes ricinus. Interestingly, two different sequences were isolated from the transcriptome of I. ricinus salivary glands (Daix et al., (2007) Insect Mol. Biol. 16 (2), 155-166). Expression of these sequences revealed that they both encode secreted proteins able to inhibit the complement alternative pathway. These proteins were called I. ricinus anticomplement (IRAC) protein I and II. Further characterization of IRACs using monoclonal antibodies revealed that both proteins are expressed constitutively in I. ricinus salivary glands and are up-regulated during blood feeding. Analysis of a series of individual ticks revealed that all ticks tested express both IRAC I and IRAC II, demonstrating that they are the products of different genes and not of alleles of the same locus. Finally, phylogenetic analyses of the I. ricinus IRAC I and II sequences together with homologues from I. scapularis and I. pacificus demonstrates that ticks belonging to the Ixodes ricinus complex encode a new family of relatively small anti-complement molecules undergoing diversification by positive Darwinian selection. Phylogenetic analyses of IRACs suggested that these sequences were diversifying by a process of positive Darwinian selection, possibly leading to molecules with different biological properties. In the second study, we tested the hypothesis that each paralogue may have different inhibitory activities against the complement of different natural host species, thereby contributing to broaden the host range of I. ricinus ticks. The data obtained demonstrated that this working hypothesis is correct (Schroeder et al., (2007) Microbes Infect. 9 (2), 247-250). In the third and last chapter of the present manuscript, we addressed the potential of IRAC I and II as candidate antigens for the development of an anti-tick vaccine. Bovine herpesvirus 4 (BoHV-4) recombinants expressing IRAC I or II were produced. Interestingly, we observed that although both recombinants expressed high levels of functional IRAC proteins in vitro, our attempts to immunize rabbits against IRACs via infection with these viruses invariably failed. In order to improve the immunogenicity of IRACs expressed as transgene, a second generation of BoHV-4 recombinants was produced. The latter expressed IRACs as transmembrane fusion proteins on cell surface. Comparison of the vaccine potential of BoHV-4 recombinant viruses expressing either secreted or transmembrane IRAC proteins revealed that while the former did not induce a detectable immune response against IRACs, the latter led to high titers of anti-IRAC antibodies. However, the immune response induced against IRACs did not lead to the reject of the tick but only slightly increased the duration of the blood feeding process.

O dilema do prisioneiro (DP) é um dos principais jogos da teoria dos jogos. No dilema do prisioneiro discreto (DPD), dois prisioneiros têm as opções de cooperar ou desertar. Um jogador cooperador não delata seu comparsa, já um desertor delata. Se um cooperar e o outro desertar, o cooperador fica preso por cinco anos e o desertor fica livre. Se ambos cooperarem, ficam presos por um ano e, se ambos desertarem, ficam presos por três anos. Quando o DP é repetido, a cooperação pode emergir entre agentes egoístas. Realizamos um estudo analítico para o DPD, que produziu uma formulação da evolução do nível médio de cooperação e da tentação crítica (valor de tentação que causa mudança abrupta do nível de cooperação). No dilema do prisioneiro contínuo (DPC), cada jogador apresenta um nível de cooperação que define o grau de cooperação. Utilizamos o DPC para estudar o efeito da personalidade dos jogadores sobre a emergência da cooperação. Para isso, propusemos novas estratégias: uma baseada na personalidade dos jogadores e outras duas baseadas na comparação entre o ganho obtido e a aspiração do jogador. Todas as estratégias apresentavam algum mecanismo de cópia do estado do vizinho com maior ganho na vizinhança, mecanismo este, herdado da estratégia darwiniana. Os resultados mostraram que o DPC aumenta o nível médio de cooperação do sistema, quando comparado ao DPD. No entanto, as diferentes estratégias não aumentaram a cooperação comparado à cooperação obtida com a estratégia darwiniana. Então propusemos o uso do coeficiente de agrupamentos, coeficiente de Gini e entropias de Shannon, Tsallis e Kullback-Leibler para classificar os sistemas, em que os agentes jogam o DPD com a estratégia darwiniana, quanto ao nível de cooperação. Como analisamos valores de médias configuracionais, tais classificadores não foram eficientes ao classificar os sistemas. Isso é consequência da existência de distribuições de extremos nos resultados que compõem as médias. As distribuições de extremos suscitaram uma discussão acerca da definição do regime de cooperação no dilema do prisioneiro. Discutimos também as consequências de utilizar apenas valores médios nos resultados ignorando seus desvios e as distribuições. / Prisoner\'s dilemma (PD) is one of the main games of game theory. In discrete prisoner\'s dilemma (DPD), two prisoners have the options to cooperate or to defect. A cooperator player does not defect his accomplice, while a defector does. If one player cooperates and the other defects, the cooperator gets jailed for five years and the defector goes free. If both cooperate, they get jailed during one year and if both defect, they get jailed during three years. When this game is repeated, cooperation may emerge among selfish individuals. We perform an analytical study for the DPD, that produced a formulation for the evolution of the mean cooperation level and for the critical temptation values (temptation values that promote abrupt modifications in the cooperation level). In continuous prisoner\'s dilemma (CPD), each player has a level of cooperation that defines his/her degree of cooperation. We used the CPD to study the effect of the players\' personality on the emergence of cooperation. For this, we propose new strategies: one based on the players\' personality and two others based on the comparison between the player\'s obtained payoff and the desire one. All strategies present some mechanism that copies the state of the neighbor with the highest payoff in the neighborhood, mechanism inherited from the Darwinian strategy. The results showed that the CPD increases the average cooperation level of the system when compared to DPD. However, different strategies do not increased the cooperation compared to cooperation obtained with the Darwinian strategy. So, we propose the use of cluster coefficient, Gini coefficient and entropy of Shannon, Tsallis and Kullback-Leibler as classifiers to classify systems, in which the individuals play DPD with Darwinian strategy, by the cooperation level. As configurational averages were analyzed, such classifiers were not efficient in classifying the systems. This is due to the existence of distributions with extreme values of the results that compose the means. Distributions with extremes values emerged a discussion about the definition of the cooperation state in the prisoner\'s dilemma. We also discussed the consequences of using only average results in the analysis ignoring their deviations and distributions.

Kinlock is a freshwater mussel shell ring site located in Sunflower County in the Mississippi Delta. Little work has been done at freshwater mussel shell rings, and therefore little is known about them. This thesis uses four different data collection methods to answer questions of chronology, site layout, etc. These four methods are controlled surface collection, excavation, coring, and magnetometry. Based on the results of these methods, Kinlock was found to be a Woodland period mussel shell ring with a later Mississippian period component built on top of the shell. This later component consisted of five mounds situated around a plaza. It was also found that the plaza was planned and maintained from the Woodland period through the Mississippian period, until the site was abandoned.

No description available.

Biologische Evolutionstheorie erklärt die sukzessive Veränderung von Arten durch Vererbung und wurde erstmalig von Charles Darwin umfassend formuliert. Die Rezeption durch die Genderforschung umfasst diskursanalytische Studien und die Methodenkritik feministischer Biowissenschaftler_innen. Konkrete Bezugspunkte stellen dabei die sexuelle Selektion, naturalisierende Thesen der Soziobiologie und der evolutionären Psychologie sowie die Rolle des Essentialismus in der Evolutionstheorie Darwins dar.

Ce mémoire propose de faire l’analyse épistémologique du pouvoir créateur de la sélection naturelle. L’objectif sera de déterminer en quelle mesure il est légitime ou non de lui attribuer un tel pouvoir. Pour ce faire, il sera question de savoir si l’explication sélectionniste peut répondre à la question de l’origine des formes structurelles du vivant. Au premier chapitre, nous verrons le raisonnement qui mena Darwin à accorder un pouvoir créateur à la sélection naturelle. Nous comprendrons alors qu’un cadre exclusivement darwinien n’est peut-être pas à même de répondre au problème de la nouveauté évolutionnaire. Au deuxième chapitre, nous verrons dans une perspective darwinienne qu’il est possible de conserver l’essence de la théorie darwinienne et d’accorder à la sélection naturelle un pouvoir créateur, bien que deux des piliers darwiniens fondamentaux doivent être remis en question. Au troisième chapitre, nous verrons dans une perspective postdarwinienne que le pouvoir cumulatif de la sélection naturelle n’est peut-être pas à même d’expliquer l’adaptation sur le plan individuel, ce qui remet lourdement en question le pouvoir créateur de la sélection naturelle. Nous comprendrons alors que le débat, entre partisans d’une vision positive et partisans d’une vision négative de la sélection naturelle, dépend peut-être d’un présupposé métaphysique particulier. / This thesis proposes an epistemological analysis of the creative power of natural selection. The aim will be to determine to what extent it is legitimate or not to give to this selection such power. To do this, we will have to know if the selectionist explanation can answer the question of the origin of structural forms of life. In the first chapter, we will see the reasoning leading Darwin to give a creative power of natural selection. We will then understand that an exclusively Darwinian framework is maybe unable to address the problem of evolutionary novelty. In the second chapter, we will see in a Darwinian way that it is possible to retain the essence of Darwinian theory and to give natural selection a creative power, although two of the fundamental Darwinians pillars must be questioned. In the third chapter, we will see in a post-Darwinian way that the cumulative power of natural selection is maybe unable to explain adaptation at individual level, challenging seriously the creative power of natural selection. We will then understand that the debate, between supporters of a positive view and supporters of a negative view of natural selection, may depend on a particular metaphysical assumption.

Il existe dans le règne animal une diversité incroyable de durées de vie allant de quelques jours pour les petits vers gastrotriches à plusieurs centaines d’années pour certains bivalves ou tortues terrestres. Cette étonnante diversité a depuis longtemps questionné les chercheurs en biologie. L’intérêt croissant pour le phénomène de vieillissement, notamment dû à l’augmentation de l’espérance de vie chez l’Homme, a conduit les chercheurs à essayer de comprendre les processus qui déterminent les patrons de longévité et de vieillissement. D’une part, les études biomédicales et biogérontologiques ont contribué à décrire nombres de mécanismes physiologiques et cellulaires à l’origine du vieillissement. Parmi ces mécanismes, le stress oxydant a été identifié comme jouant un rôle majeur, à travers l’accumulation au cours de la vie des dégâts générés par la production de radicaux libres lors d’activités métaboliques aérobies. D’autre part, le développement de théories évolutives du vieillissement a contribué à comprendre l’origine ultime du vieillissement et l’évolution de la diversité des traits d’histoire de vie. Cependant, ces approches, bien que complémentaires, sont longtemps restées imperméables et les travaux intégrant les mécanismes physiologiques tels que le stress oxydant dans une perspective évolutive n’ont connu que de récents développements. Dans cette thèse, nous avons étudié comment des mécanismes tels que le stress oxydant et ses coûts associés lors d’évènements comme la reproduction ou la réponse immunitaire pouvaient jouer un rôle dans l’évolution des patrons de vieillissement chez les oiseaux et les mammifères (i) en étudiant le rôle des antioxydants comme ressources clés dans les compromis adaptatifs entre reproduction et survie en fonction de l’âge, (ii) en étudiant les conséquences à long terme de l’environnement périnatal, (iii) en étudiant le lien entre réponse inflammatoire et patrons de vieillissement et de longévité contrastée entre oiseaux et mammifères, (iv) en s’intéressant plus particulièrement aux mécanismes de régulation immunitaire, soulignant leur rôle crucial pour la fitness des hôtes, et notamment tard dans la vie. Nos résultats soulignent l’importance des contraintes physiologiques liées à la limitation en ressources clés (antioxydants) ou aux dégâts engendrés lors d’activités coûteuses et destructrices et sur les patrons de vieillissements à l’échelle intra et inter-spécifique. / There is an incredible diversity of lifespan in the animal kingdom ranging from a few days for small gastrotrichs worms to several hundred of years for some bivalves or tortoises. This amazing diversity has long questioned biology researchers. The growing interest in the phenomenon of aging, mainly due to the increase in life expectancy in humans, has questioned researchers on processes that determine patterns of longevity and ageing. On the one hand, biomedical and biogerontological studies helped describe numerous cellular and physiological mechanisms related to aging. Among these mechanisms, oxidative stress has been identified as playing a major role, through life-time accumulation of damage generated by production of metabolic free radicals. On the other hand, the development of evolutionary theories of aging has contributed to understanding ultimate origins of ageing and of the diversity of life history traits. However, these approaches, although complementary, have long remained separated and works that integrate physiological mechanisms such as oxidative stress in an evolutionary perspective have known only recent developments. In this thesis, we studied how mechanisms such as oxidative stress and its associated costs produced during reproduction or immune response could play a role in the evolution of patterns of ageing in birds and mammals by (i) studying the role of antioxidants as key resources involved in adaptive trade-offs between reproduction and survival through age, (ii) studying the long-term effects of the early environment, (iii) studying the relationship between inflammatory response and contrasted patterns of ageing and longevity between birds and mammals, (iv) focusing particularly on immune regulatory mechanisms, emphasizing their crucial role in fitness of hosts, especially late in life. Overall, our results highlight the importance of physiological constraints in terms of key resources limitation (i.e. antioxidants) or damage caused during costly and destructive activities and on intra-and inter-specific patterns of ageing.

O Dilema do Prisioneiro (DP) é o jogo mais proeminente da Teoria dos Jogos devido à emergência da cooperação entre jogadores egoístas. O comportamento de cada jogador depende da estratégia que ele adotada e do seu ganho, que é determinado em função dos parâmetros do DP (T, R, P e S) e do número z de vizinhos com que ele joga. Portanto, a estrutura espacial dos jogadores não é relevante. Em nosso trabalho, utilizamos um autômato celular unidimensional onde cada jogador pode cooperar ou desertar ao interagir, simetricamente, com seus z vizinhos mais próximos. O sistema proposto nos permitiu realizar um estudo exaustivo do espaço de parâmetros para as estratégias evolucionárias Darwiniana (EED) e a Pavloviana (EEP) e compara-las. A geometria unidimensional nos possibilita obter os mesmos resultados dos sistemas em dimensionalidade arbitrária d, além de apresentar várias vantagens em relação a elas. No sistema que propomos os efeitos de borda são menores, exige menos tempo para a execução das simulações numéricas, permite variar o valor de z e é fácil obter uma representação visual da evolução temporal do sistema. Tal visualização simplifica a compreensão das interações entre os jogadores, pois surgem padrões nos agrupamentos de cooperadores/desertores, semelhantes aos pertencentes às classes dos autômatos celulares elementares. O estudo destes padrões nos permite compreender simplesmente a emergência da cooperação ou deserção nos sistemas. A evolução temporal do sistema que adota a EED gera um diagrama de fases muito rico com a presença das fases cooperadora, desertora e caótica. Já para a EEP, obtivemos um novo resultado analítico para as transições de fase, que neste caso são: cooperadora e quasi-regular. O estudo numérico exaustivo determinou as regiões do espaço de parâmetros onde acontecem cada uma das fases, e os efeitos da auto-interação podendo assim validar os resultados teóricos. O estudo do caso particular T = 1, tradicionalmente considerado como trivial, mostrou que ele apresenta comportamentos inusitados. Nossa principal contribuição para o estudo do DP é a obtenção de um novo paradigma. A geometria unidimensional com interação de vizinhos simétricos permitiu a visualização da evolução de padrões de cooperadores e desertores, o cálculo analítico de Tc para a EEP e o estudo de T = 1 para tais sistemas. / The Prisoner Dilemma (PD) is the most prominent game of the Game Theory due to emergency of the cooperation between selfish players. The behavior of each player depends on his/her strategy and the payoff, which is determined in function of the PD parameters (T, R, P and S) and by the number z of neighbors with whom he/she plays. Therefore, the spatial structure of the players does not matter. In our work, we have used a one-dimensional cellular automaton where each player can cooperate or defect when interacting, symmetrically, with his/her z nearest neighbors. The considered system allowed us to carry out an exhaustive exploration of the parameters space for the Darwinian Evolutionary Strategy (EED) and Pavlovian (EEP) and compares them. One-dimensional geometry makes possible to us get the same results of the systems in arbitrary d dimensional networks, besides, it presents some advantages. For the system that we proposed compared to the others dimensional networks, the boundary effects are less present, it needs less time for run the numerical simulations, it allows to vary the z value and is easier to get the visual representation of the system temporal evolution. Such visualization simplifies the understanding of the interactions between the players, therefore patterns appear in the clusters of cooperator/defectors, and these patterns belong to the elementary cellular automata classes. The study of these patterns allows them to understand in an easy way the emergence of the cooperation or defection in the systems. The temporal evolution of the system that adopts the EED yields a very rich phases diagram with the presence of cooperative, defective and chaotic phases. By the other hand, for the EEP, we have got a new analytical result for the phase transitions that in this case are: quasi-regular and cooperative. The exhaustive exploration study determines the regions on the parameters space where happen each phases occurs, and the effect of the self-interaction and thus validate the theoretical results. The study of the particular case T = 1, traditionally considered as trivial one, showed that it presents unusual behaviors, that we will present. Our main contribution for the study of the DP is the attainment of a new paradigm. One-dimensional geometry with interaction of symmetrical neighbors allowed to visualizes the evolution of cooperators and defectors patterns, the analytical result for Tc for the EEP and the study of T = 1 for such systems.

The following argument offers a sharper micro-foundational lens for studying human political and social behavior by demonstrating how political science might better incorporate the theory of evolution into its behavioral models, and by showing that differential conflict occasionally prevails over the materialist conflicts depicted in much of the modern social science literature. I take evolutionary psychology's understanding of manifest behavior as a point of departure, and then analyze the manifest behavior in terms of judgments, which are binary measurements at a particular point of reference; in other words, a given manifest behavior either did or did not occur at a particular point in time. I then show that judgments can 1) transmit from one individual to the next, 2) vary according to predictable adaptive processes, and 3) are either extinguished or flourish dependent upon the process of natural selection; judgments, therefore, meet the three requirements of evolutionary theory. Judgments, rather than genes, better describe the process of human political and social evolution, which becomes especially clear when one assesses the consequences of what I term "differential" outcomes in judgments. / text

Ce mémoire propose de faire l’analyse épistémologique du pouvoir créateur de la sélection naturelle. L’objectif sera de déterminer en quelle mesure il est légitime ou non de lui attribuer un tel pouvoir. Pour ce faire, il sera question de savoir si l’explication sélectionniste peut répondre à la question de l’origine des formes structurelles du vivant. Au premier chapitre, nous verrons le raisonnement qui mena Darwin à accorder un pouvoir créateur à la sélection naturelle. Nous comprendrons alors qu’un cadre exclusivement darwinien n’est peut-être pas à même de répondre au problème de la nouveauté évolutionnaire. Au deuxième chapitre, nous verrons dans une perspective darwinienne qu’il est possible de conserver l’essence de la théorie darwinienne et d’accorder à la sélection naturelle un pouvoir créateur, bien que deux des piliers darwiniens fondamentaux doivent être remis en question. Au troisième chapitre, nous verrons dans une perspective postdarwinienne que le pouvoir cumulatif de la sélection naturelle n’est peut-être pas à même d’expliquer l’adaptation sur le plan individuel, ce qui remet lourdement en question le pouvoir créateur de la sélection naturelle. Nous comprendrons alors que le débat, entre partisans d’une vision positive et partisans d’une vision négative de la sélection naturelle, dépend peut-être d’un présupposé métaphysique particulier. / This thesis proposes an epistemological analysis of the creative power of natural selection. The aim will be to determine to what extent it is legitimate or not to give to this selection such power. To do this, we will have to know if the selectionist explanation can answer the question of the origin of structural forms of life. In the first chapter, we will see the reasoning leading Darwin to give a creative power of natural selection. We will then understand that an exclusively Darwinian framework is maybe unable to address the problem of evolutionary novelty. In the second chapter, we will see in a Darwinian way that it is possible to retain the essence of Darwinian theory and to give natural selection a creative power, although two of the fundamental Darwinians pillars must be questioned. In the third chapter, we will see in a post-Darwinian way that the cumulative power of natural selection is maybe unable to explain adaptation at individual level, challenging seriously the creative power of natural selection. We will then understand that the debate, between supporters of a positive view and supporters of a negative view of natural selection, may depend on a particular metaphysical assumption.