L’aggravation des besoins en matière de vieillesse, de dépendance, de handicap, d’isolement et d’exclusion en général, exacerbe les tensions entre solidarités familiales et solidarités collectives. Partout, la crise des solidarités inquiète : crise des solidarités familiales d’une part, en raison de l’individualisme et de la liberté qui fragilisent les responsabilités familiales, crise des solidarités collectives d’autre part, au regard des difficultés économiques et sociales de l’État-providence. L’articulation entre la solidarité familiale et la solidarité collective est une question centrale des politiques sociales et familiales menées par les États modernes. Le discours contemporain témoigne d’une redécouverte des solidarités familiales et d’une mise en valeur de la fonction économique de la famille, au travers des institutions juridiques de l’obligation alimentaire et de la transmission du patrimoine. L’attention portée aux solidarités de proximité vise à pallier la fragilisation des dispositifs de protection issus de la solidarité collective, ici entendue comme l’ensemble des aides sociales et des prestations non contributives de sécurité sociale. L’articulation de la solidarité familiale et de la solidarité collective interroge le législateur sur la place respective à assigner à la famille et à l’État dans la prise en charge de la personne dans le besoin. Cette étude propose de mettre en évidence le glissement d’un système d’articulation édifié sur la subsidiarité de la solidarité collective par rapport à la solidarité familiale vers un modèle fondé sur la complémentarité de la solidarité familiale et de la solidarité collective. Dans cette perspective, la thèse se propose d’étudier l’impact sur les solidarités familiales, des recours et des récupérations exercés par la collectivité contre les débiteurs alimentaires et les transmissions patrimoniales. / The increasing needs related to old age, dependency, disability, loneliness and more broadly exclusion leads to a tension’s exacerbationbetween family solidarities and collective solidarities. The solidarity crisis is a matter of concern as we observea familial solidarities crisis created by individualism and freedom leading to a weakening of familial liabilities and a collective solidarities crisis created by the welfare state’s economic difficulties. Thus, balance between familial and collective solidarities is a key issue regarding social policies conducted by modern States. The contemporary vision brings up the idea of a rediscovery of familial solidarities and an increasing role given to the economic role of the family through legal institutions such as the maintenance obligation and the assets transmission. The attention given to local solidarities tends to correct the weakening of collective solidarities, defined as the set of social supports and free social security benefits. The balance between familial solidarities and collective solidarities brings lawmaker to re think the role of State and family in regards of a person in need. This study demonstrates that solidarities are drifting from a system balanced by the subsidiarity between collective solidarity and familial solidarity to a new model based on complementarity between familial and collective solidarity. From that perspective, this thesis assesses the impact of familial solidarities, remedies and recoveries used by collectivities against food debtors and transmission of assets.

<div>Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are being considered as an alternative to conventional medium-duty (MD) and heavy-duty (HD) commercial vehicles to reduce fuel consumption and tailpipe emissions. Lithium ion batteries, which are used in PHEVs due to their high energy density, are expensive. The battery contributes significantly towards the life-cycle cost of MD/HD PHEVs, as these vehicles, due to high mass and aggressive battery usage, require multiple battery replacements over their lifetime. Smaller batteries increase the fuel consumption and need more replacements, while bigger batteries increase the initial system cost. Powertrain design from a life-cycle cost perspective is required to explore this trade-off and maximize the economic gains obtained from PHEVs. </div><div><br></div><div>Powertrain design entails component sizing, control strategy selection as well as architecture selection. Different powertrain designs yield different lifetime economic gains. A variety of applications exist for MD/HD vehicles, which differ in their ways of powertrain usage, due to variations in required acceleration, available braking, and average and maximum speeds. Therefore, different powertrain designs are needed depending on the application and usage scenario. The powertrain design space needs to be explored, and solutions that maximize the economic gains within the specified constraints need to be chosen.</div><div><br></div><div>This dissertation compares the economic viability of two PHEV applications (MD Truck and HD Transit Bus), with options of series and parallel hybrid architectures, over multiple drivecycles, for four economic scenarios (years 2015, 2020, 2025 and 2030). It is shown that hybridizing the transit bus achieves payback sooner than hybridizing the truck. Further, the results for the transit bus application, over the Manhattan drivecycle, show that implementation of the parallel architecture is economically viable in the 2015(present) scenario, while the series architecture becomes viable in 2020, due to significantly lower initial costs involved in the parallel architecture.</div><div><br></div><div>A methodology to select a solution out of the explored design space that maximizes the economic gains is demonstrated. Variations in the economic and vehicle usage conditions for which this solution is designed, can be expected. It is therefore necessary to check the robustness of this solution to change in external factors such as vehicle mass, annual vehicle miles travelled (AVMT), component and fuel costs. It is shown that the economic gains are affected by the battery cost, fuel cost, AVMT and vehicle mass, while the number of battery replacements are affected by AVMT and vehicle mass. </div><div><br></div><div>A probability-based approach is demonstrated to obtain confidence in the economic and battery life predictions. Specifically, probability-based variations are provided to variables such as miles traveled between recharge, recharge C-rate and battery temperature. It is shown that battery life is affected the most by battery temperature.</div><div><br></div><div>A battery heating/cooling system is required to maintain constant battery temperature of operation during all seasons, but these systems incur additional fuel costs. A framework that utilizes just the Coefficient of Performance (COP) of the heating/cooling system to calculate the excess fuel cost is proposed and demonstrated. An increase of 0.9-1.8\% in fuel consumption is shown, depending on the drivecycle and ambient temperature.</div><div><br></div><div>Further, the well-to-wheel (WTW) fuel-cycle emissions from conventional and PHEV transit buses operating in Indiana and California are assessed using the ``Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation'' (GREET) Model 2017, developed by Argonne National Labs. It is shown that 59% and 63% greenhouse gas (GHG) reductions can be achieved in Indiana and California respectively, along with reduction in carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides NOx, particulate matter with diameter less than 2.5 microns PM2.5 and volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions for both the states. However, an increase in sulfur oxides SOx emissions for both the states, and particulate matter with diameter less than 10 microns PM10 increase for Indiana, are observed. </div><div><br></div>

A família é a base da sociedade, conforme expressa disposição contida na Constituição Federal de 1988, que lhe assegura especial proteção do Estado. É o núcleo familiar a menor e mais íntima célula social, mas também o mais importante agrupamento de pessoas que têm entre si uma profunda relação afetiva e de solidariedade. Tão importantes são os laços de afetividade que unem os familiares que a lei lhes atribui valor e eficácia jurídica. Dentro do núcleo familiar, as crianças e adolescentes que contam com menos de 18 anos de idade, são consideradas mais vulneráveis e, por tal motivo, recebem proteção especial, ainda mais específica do Estado. A Constituição Federal lhes assegura vários direitos e garantias fundamentais, confirmados e reiterados no Código Civil, no Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente e, até mesmo em leis infraconstitucionais esparsas. É dever da família, da sociedade e do Estado assegurar à criança e ao adolescente, com absoluta prioridade os direitos fundamentais estabelecidos na Constituição Federal. O Estado, por sua vez, diante da importância que os menores têm dentro da família e para nossa sociedade, impõe aos pais a autoridade familiar, delegando a eles a enorme responsabilidade de dirigir a criação e educação dos filhos, entre outras funções tão igualmente importantes. Entretanto, ao mesmo tempo que atribui a função da autoridade familiar aos pais, o Estado também lhes retira a liberdade de exercer tal autoridade com autonomia. A intervenção estatal no exercício da autoridade familiar é, por certo, legítima e devida, tendo em vista a segurança e o bem estar das crianças e dos adolescentes. Os abusos na direção da criação e educação dos filhos podem e devem ser coibidos pelo poder estatal, a quem incumbe cuidar da segurança de todos os indivíduos. A excessiva intervenção estatal, porém, é ilegítima, podendo gerar consequências desastrosas nas relações familiares e na criação dos filhos. Ao esvaziar a autoridade familiar o Estado torna mais difícil ainda a função de disciplinar e exigir obediência dos filhos. O Estado deve ser atuante e efetivamente intervir no exercício da autoridade familiar da maneira como faz atualmente, apenas para fiscalizar e coibir eventuais abusos, mas não deve retirar a autoridade dos pais, sob pena de não conseguir conter os abusos eventualmente cometidos pelos próprios menores, demasiadamente protegidos. O Projeto de lei n° 7672/2010, em trâmite na Câmara dos Deputados, que pretende alterar o Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente, para coibir a aplicação de castigos corporais ou de tratamento cruel ou degradante pelos pais na criação e educação dos filhos, conhecido como Lei da Palmada, é um exemplo da intervenção indevida do Estado nas relações familiares. A obrigatoriedade de matricular os filhos no ensino fundamental, submetendo-os à educação formal, impedindo que os próprios pais ofereçam a educação doméstica também é outro exemplo de intervenção estatal indevida. Deve-se buscar um equilíbrio para que os pais possam livremente criar e educar seus filhos sem abusos e que o Estado possa fiscalizar o exercício da função a eles atribuída, sem intervir diretamente na autoridade familiar. / Society is founded on families. In an explicit provision of the 1988 Constitution, the law ensures that the State safeguards families. While a family may be characterized as the smallest and most intimate social cell, it is also the most important gathering of people, sharing a deep and emotional relationship, as well as solidarity. These ties of affection that bond families together are so important that the law grants them value and legal efficacy. Within the family, children and adolescents who are under 18 years old are considered to be the most vulnerable and, therefore, receive special protection, secured by specific rules. The Federal Constitution thus ensures that various fundamental rights and guarantees are provided to them, something that is reaffirmed in the Civil Code, in the Statute of Children and Adolescents, and even in sparse legislation. It is the duty of the family, the society and the State to make sure that children and adolescents come first when it comes to the fundamental rights established in the Constitution. Taking into account the importance that children have within the family and within society, the State delegates \"family authority\" to parents, the enormous responsibility to guide the upbringing and education of children, among other functions as equally important. However, while assigning such role to parents, the State also withdraws them the freedom to exercise this authority with complete autonomy. Aiming at guaranteeing the safety and welfare of children and adolescents, government intervention in the exercise of family authority is thus legitimate and appropriate. Abuses carried out by parents while raising and educating their children can and should be restrained by the State, who is ultimately responsible for caring for the safety of all individuals. Excessive state intervention, however, is illegitimate, and can generate disastrous consequences for family relationships and parenting. When the government empties family authority, it may turn the task of disciplining children into something more difficult than it already is. It is our belief that the State must actively intervene in the exercise of family authority, monitoring and curbing abuses, but it must do so in a way that does not withdraw the authority of parents, or it will fail to control abuses eventually committed by children and adolescents themselves, overly protected. Draft Law No. 7672/2010, currently awaiting approval from the House of Representatives, seeks to amend the Statute of Children and Adolescents. If passed, the Statute would forbid parents to use any kind of punishment that may be deemed cruel or degrading treatment, while upbringing and educating their children. Widely known as the \"Spanking Statute\", this is a clear example of undue state intervention in family relationships. Another provision that we question here is the obligation to enroll children in elementary school, subjecting them to formal education, and preventing home schooling. We must seek balance so that parents may freely raise and educate their children. And while the State must be allowed to scrutinize the proper exercise of parenting, it must not do so in a way that directly affects and undermines family authority.

Development of a fuel economy model for light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles is part of the Texas Department of Transportation’s “Estimating Texas Motor Vehicle Operating Costs” project. A literature review for models that could be used to predict the fuel economy of light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles resulted in selection of coastdown coefficients to simulate the combined effects of aerodynamic drag and tire rolling resistance. For light-duty vehicles, advantage can be taken of the modeling data provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for adjusting chassis dynamometers to allow accurate determination of emissions and fuel economy so that compliance with emissions standards and Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) regulations can be assessed. Initially, EPA provided vehicle-specific data that were relevant to a physics-based model of the forces at the tire-road interface. Due to some limitations of these model parameters, EPA now provides three vehicle-specific coefficients obtained from vehicle coastdown data. These coefficients can be related back to the original physics-based model of the forces at the tire-road interface, but not in a manner that allows the original modeling parameters to be extracted from the coastdown coefficients. Nevertheless, as long as the operation of a light-duty vehicle does not involve extreme acceleration or deceleration transients, the coefficients available from the EPA can be used to accurately predict fuel economy. Manufacturers of heavy-duty vehicles are not required to meet any sort of CAFE standards, and the engines used in heavy-duty vehicles, rather than the vehicles themselves, are tested (using an engine dynamometer) to determine compliance with emissions standards. Therefore, EPA provides no data that could be useful for predicting the fuel economy of heavy-duty vehicles. Therefore, it is necessary to perform heavyduty coastdown tests in order to predict fuel economy, and use these tests to develop vehicle-specific coefficients for the force at the tire-road interface. Given these coefficients, the fuel economy of a heavy-duty vehicle can be calculated for any driving schedule. The heavy-duty vehicle model developed for this project is limited to pre-2007 calendar year heavy-duty vehicles due to the adverse effects of emissions components that were necessary to comply with emissions standards that went into effect January 2007. / text

Sammanfattning Av störst vikt vid en företagsförvärvsprocess är huruvida säljaren och köparen reglerar sina ansvarsområden och bestämmer gränser för riskövergången i köpeavtalet. Ur rättsäkerhetssynpunkt är det essentiellt att kunna förutsäga och identifiera riskerna redan vid avtalsslutet. Det ligger ofta i parternas intresse att så långt som möjligt reglera förutsättningarna redan vid ingående och utformning av ett köpeavtal. Syftet med denna uppsats är att undersöka samspelet och följden av att säljaren inför garantiutfästelser i ett köpeavtal kontra resultatet av att köparen faktiskt genomför en due diligence-undersökning innan ett köpeavtal kommer till stånd. Detta genomförs med utgångspunkt i diskussionen kring riskfördelning mellan avtalsparterna, köplagens regler om säljarens upplysningsplikt, köparens undersökningsplikt och den allmänna lojalitetsplikten som åligger avtalsparter. Utgångspunkten vid formuleringen av avtal mellan parterna anses vara det köprättsliga felbegreppet med dess utgångspunkt i köparens befogade förväntningar på det överlåtna objektet. En genomförd due diligence och införande av garantier i köpeavtal kan innebära att riskövergången regleras och de befogade förväntningarna preciseras vilket leder till förutsägbarhet och säkerhet för parterna att kunna förutse eventuella framtida risker. Det föreslås att due diligence görs till en absolut undersökningsplikt eftersom det skulle kunna minska antalet framtida tvister mellan avtalsparter. Due diligence utgör ett förebyggande sätt att identifiera och kvantifiera risk. Garantin är däremot ett reaktivt sätt att försöka allokera risk. Det konstateras att det inte föreligger någon konkurrens mellan due diligence och garantier i fråga om uppdelning av risksfärer. Dessa kompletterar varandra då de verkar på olika stadier i förvärvsprocessen och har olika utgångspunkter. / Abstract The regulation of the areas of responsibility of the seller and the buyer and the definition of the location of risk in the contract of acquisition is of a greatest importance during a process of business transfer. It is essential to predict and identify the risks already at the moment of conclusion of the contract due to the reason of the fact of legal certainty. It always is the interest of both parties to, as far as possible, carefully regulate the conditions and the formulation of the contract. The purpose of this paper is to examine the interaction and the result of the fact that the seller introduces warranties in the contract versus the due diligence investigation performed by the buyer prior to the content of the contract is reached. The basis of the discussion is concentrated on the questions of the allocation of the risk between the parties, the rules in the Swedish sale of Goods Act about the obligation of the buyer to investigate the object of the contract, the duty to give the relevant information of the seller, and even the general duty of loyalty imposed on the contracting parties. The fundamental basis for the regulation of the contract is the definition of the defect of the object of acquisition and the reasonable expectations of the buyer regarding the object. The due diligence and the implementation of warranties in the contract may significate that the risks are regulated and the reasonable expectations are stated which leads to the predictability and certainty for the parties so that the parties can be able to avoid the risks in the future. I suggest that the due diligence should be an absolute duty to investigate the object of acquisition because it could reduce the number of future disputes between the contracting parties. The due diligence is a proactive way to identify and quantify risk. The warranties are however a reactive way of trying to allocate the risk. Finally there is no competition between the due diligence and the warranties rather they compose a complement to each other.

La première source de la business judgment rule a été la jurisprudence. Celle-ci a été la source des codifications incitatives et contraignantes. Nos recherches ont mis en évidence deux types de formulations de la business judgment rule. Le premier type est la formulation prétorienne lato sensu et stricto sensu. Le second type est la formulation codifiée (Model Business Corporation Act, Corporate Director's Guidebook, Principles of Corporate Governance, lois limitant la responsabilité personnelle des dirigeants). De plus, nos recherches ont dégagé 9 types de termes qui se retrouvent dans tous les types des formulations. Les 4 premiers types de termes correspondent respectivement (1) aux pouvoirs des dirigeants et à leur discrétion, (2) au statut des dirigeants, (3) aux devoirs des dirigeants, (4) aux degrés de devoirs requis et à la gravité de la transgression de ces devoirs sanctionnée (standard of conduct). Les cinq types de termes suivants correspondent respectivement (1) au droit à l'erreur, (2) à la présomption de comportement/conduite, (3) au refus d'un contrôle judiciaire, (4) à la charge de la preuve, (5) à la justification de la business judgment rule (standard of revision). Les deux différences fondamentales entre les formulations de la business judgment rule sont les suivantes. La première différence se situe au niveau des conditions d'application de la règle et concerne la relation entre le standard de conduite, c'est-à-dire le type des devoirs, le degré des devoirs et la gravité de la transgression des devoirs, et le standard de responsabilité, c'est-à-dire les devoirs examinés quand la business judgment rule s'applique. La seconde différence fondamentale entre les formulations se situe au niveau des effets de la règle et concerne l'étendue d'un contrôle judiciaire sur le résultat de l'action ou de l'omission des dirigeants, c'est-à-dire le prix grossièrement inadéquat, l'abus de discrétion, le dépassement grossier, etc. / The first source of the « business judgment rule » is the jurisprudence. The jurisprudence was the source of the « soft law » and « hard law » codifications. The research showed two types of formulations of the « business judgment rule ». The first type is the jurisprudence formulation lato sensu_and stricto sensu. The second type is the codification formulation (Mode) Business Corporation Act, Corporate Director's Guidebook, Principles of Corporate Governance, lois limitant la responsabilité personnelle des dirigeants). The research showed nine types of terms which may be found in the formulations of the « business judgment rule». The first four terms correspond respectively to (1) the powers of the governors of the corporation and their discretion ; (2) their status ; (3) their duties, and (4) the degree of their duties. This first type of terms constitutes the standard of conduct. The next five types of terms correspond respectively to (1) the right to the error; (2) the presumption of the conduct; (3) the refusal of judicial review; (4) the burden of proof; (5) the justification of the « business judgment rule ». This second type of terms constitutes the standard of revision. There are two fundamental differences between the formulations of the « business judgment rule ». The first difference is situated at the level of the conditions of application of the « business judgment rule », and concerns the relations between the standard of conduct and the standard of revision. The second difference is situated at the level of the effects of the « business judgment rule » and concerns the scope of judicial review.

Les contraintes présentes dans les réseaux de capteurs impliquent l'introduction de techniques d'optimisation à différents niveaux de conception : du matériel au logiciel et dans la pile de communication. En effet, le déploiement des réseaux de capteurs, à faible consommation énergétique, exige une conception conjointe du matériel et du logiciel adaptée à l'application visée. Étant donné la nature évènementielle et multitâche des applications dans les réseaux de capteurs, nous pourrions penser à rajouter différentes unités de traitement qui coopèrent pour gérer les évènements et les tâches de manière optimale. Ainsi, la complexité des tâches accomplies par le processeur principal peut être réduite, ce qui contribue à atteindre l'efficacité énergétique. Dans cette thèse nous étudions un ensemble de protocoles qui facilitent l'implémentation des smart radios. L'idée principale des smart radios est l'introduction de l'intelligence dans la puce radio de manière à ce qu'elle soit capable de prendre des décisions ainsi que d'exécuter plusieurs tâches de manière autonome et sans l'intervention du processeur principal. Cette dernière sera responsable du bootstrap du réseau et, après qu'un état stable est atteint, le processeur peut rester inactif la plupart du temps, alors que la puce radio continue à fournir un ensemble de services. Le protocole proposé est appelé Wake on Idle et il fournit la maintenance de voisinage intégrée avec une méthode d'accès au canal. Ces services sont basés sur des transmissions analogiques qui sont codées dans le temps. De cette manière, dès que le réseau entre dans l'état stable (c.à.d. la topologie est formée et les noeuds sont associés et synchronisés), le traitement numérique de trames n'est pas nécessaire. Puisque Wake on Idle est basé sur des informations de bas niveau, il peut être facilement intégré dans la puce radio et fonctionner comme un coprocesseur qui fournit des services de haut niveau au processeur principal, comme la maintenance du voisinage et l'accès au canal. Grâce à une analyse théorique et une implémentation préliminaire, nous démontrons la faisabilité du protocole et nous montrons plusieurs caractéristiques intéressantes qui aident à atteindre l'efficacité énergétique et de bonnes performances. Ensuite, nous exploitons la signalisation analogique afin d'optimiser le duty-cycle des protocoles d'accès au canal existants. Nous proposons également un mécanisme appelé Sleep on Idle qui est basé sur l'échange de signaux analogiques ou busy tones. Sleep on Idle peut être intégré dans la radio et il peut décider quand le processeur doit être réveillé. Enfin, nous avons intégré le mécanisme de notification dans le standard IEEE802.15.4 et nous avons évalué ce mécanisme par des simulations et expérimentations. Les résultats montrent un gain important en termes de consommation en énergie et de réactivité du réseau. / The constraints of Wireless Sensor Networks scenarios require the introduction of optimization techniques at different design levels: from the hardware to the software and communication protocol stack. In fact, the design of energy efficient WSNs involves an appropriate hardware/software co-design oriented to the concerned application. Given the event driven and multitasking nature of WSNs applications, one could think of adding different processing units that cooperate to manage events and tasks in an optimal way. Then, the complexity of tasks performed by the main processing unit can be reduced and energy efficiency can be achieved. In this PhD thesis we study protocols that leverage the implementation of smart radios. The idea of smart radios is introducing intelligence into the radio chip; in this way, it will be able to take decisions and perform several tasks in an autonomous way and without any intervention of the main processing unit. The processing unit will be in charge of bootstrapping the network and, after a stable state is reached, it can remain inactive most of the time while the radio chip provides a given set of services. The proposed protocol is called Wake on Idle and it provides integrated neighborhood maintenance and low duty-cycle medium access control. These services are provided based on analog transmissions that are time encoded; then, as soon as the network enters the stable state (i.e. the topology is formed and nodes are associated and synchronized) digital processing of frames is not needed. Since it relies on low-level information, Wake on Idle can be easily implemented on hardware and integrated into the radio chip; then, it works as a coprocessor that provides high-level services (i.e. neighborhood maintenance and medium access) to the main processing unit. Through theoretical analysis and a preliminary implementation we demonstrate the feasibility of the protocol and we show several interesting characteristics that help achieving energy efficiency and good performance. Then, we further exploit analog signaling to optimize duty cycle of existing medium access control protocols. We propose a mechanism called Sleep on Idle and it is based on the exchange of analog busy tones. Sleep on Idle can also be integrated into the smart radio to take decisions about whether the main processing unit has to be woken up. We apply the decision mechanism to the slotted ieee802.15.4 standard and validate it through simulations and experimentations. The results show an important gain in terms of energy consumption and network reactivity.

A família é a base da sociedade, conforme expressa disposição contida na Constituição Federal de 1988, que lhe assegura especial proteção do Estado. É o núcleo familiar a menor e mais íntima célula social, mas também o mais importante agrupamento de pessoas que têm entre si uma profunda relação afetiva e de solidariedade. Tão importantes são os laços de afetividade que unem os familiares que a lei lhes atribui valor e eficácia jurídica. Dentro do núcleo familiar, as crianças e adolescentes que contam com menos de 18 anos de idade, são consideradas mais vulneráveis e, por tal motivo, recebem proteção especial, ainda mais específica do Estado. A Constituição Federal lhes assegura vários direitos e garantias fundamentais, confirmados e reiterados no Código Civil, no Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente e, até mesmo em leis infraconstitucionais esparsas. É dever da família, da sociedade e do Estado assegurar à criança e ao adolescente, com absoluta prioridade os direitos fundamentais estabelecidos na Constituição Federal. O Estado, por sua vez, diante da importância que os menores têm dentro da família e para nossa sociedade, impõe aos pais a autoridade familiar, delegando a eles a enorme responsabilidade de dirigir a criação e educação dos filhos, entre outras funções tão igualmente importantes. Entretanto, ao mesmo tempo que atribui a função da autoridade familiar aos pais, o Estado também lhes retira a liberdade de exercer tal autoridade com autonomia. A intervenção estatal no exercício da autoridade familiar é, por certo, legítima e devida, tendo em vista a segurança e o bem estar das crianças e dos adolescentes. Os abusos na direção da criação e educação dos filhos podem e devem ser coibidos pelo poder estatal, a quem incumbe cuidar da segurança de todos os indivíduos. A excessiva intervenção estatal, porém, é ilegítima, podendo gerar consequências desastrosas nas relações familiares e na criação dos filhos. Ao esvaziar a autoridade familiar o Estado torna mais difícil ainda a função de disciplinar e exigir obediência dos filhos. O Estado deve ser atuante e efetivamente intervir no exercício da autoridade familiar da maneira como faz atualmente, apenas para fiscalizar e coibir eventuais abusos, mas não deve retirar a autoridade dos pais, sob pena de não conseguir conter os abusos eventualmente cometidos pelos próprios menores, demasiadamente protegidos. O Projeto de lei n° 7672/2010, em trâmite na Câmara dos Deputados, que pretende alterar o Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente, para coibir a aplicação de castigos corporais ou de tratamento cruel ou degradante pelos pais na criação e educação dos filhos, conhecido como Lei da Palmada, é um exemplo da intervenção indevida do Estado nas relações familiares. A obrigatoriedade de matricular os filhos no ensino fundamental, submetendo-os à educação formal, impedindo que os próprios pais ofereçam a educação doméstica também é outro exemplo de intervenção estatal indevida. Deve-se buscar um equilíbrio para que os pais possam livremente criar e educar seus filhos sem abusos e que o Estado possa fiscalizar o exercício da função a eles atribuída, sem intervir diretamente na autoridade familiar. / Society is founded on families. In an explicit provision of the 1988 Constitution, the law ensures that the State safeguards families. While a family may be characterized as the smallest and most intimate social cell, it is also the most important gathering of people, sharing a deep and emotional relationship, as well as solidarity. These ties of affection that bond families together are so important that the law grants them value and legal efficacy. Within the family, children and adolescents who are under 18 years old are considered to be the most vulnerable and, therefore, receive special protection, secured by specific rules. The Federal Constitution thus ensures that various fundamental rights and guarantees are provided to them, something that is reaffirmed in the Civil Code, in the Statute of Children and Adolescents, and even in sparse legislation. It is the duty of the family, the society and the State to make sure that children and adolescents come first when it comes to the fundamental rights established in the Constitution. Taking into account the importance that children have within the family and within society, the State delegates \"family authority\" to parents, the enormous responsibility to guide the upbringing and education of children, among other functions as equally important. However, while assigning such role to parents, the State also withdraws them the freedom to exercise this authority with complete autonomy. Aiming at guaranteeing the safety and welfare of children and adolescents, government intervention in the exercise of family authority is thus legitimate and appropriate. Abuses carried out by parents while raising and educating their children can and should be restrained by the State, who is ultimately responsible for caring for the safety of all individuals. Excessive state intervention, however, is illegitimate, and can generate disastrous consequences for family relationships and parenting. When the government empties family authority, it may turn the task of disciplining children into something more difficult than it already is. It is our belief that the State must actively intervene in the exercise of family authority, monitoring and curbing abuses, but it must do so in a way that does not withdraw the authority of parents, or it will fail to control abuses eventually committed by children and adolescents themselves, overly protected. Draft Law No. 7672/2010, currently awaiting approval from the House of Representatives, seeks to amend the Statute of Children and Adolescents. If passed, the Statute would forbid parents to use any kind of punishment that may be deemed cruel or degrading treatment, while upbringing and educating their children. Widely known as the \"Spanking Statute\", this is a clear example of undue state intervention in family relationships. Another provision that we question here is the obligation to enroll children in elementary school, subjecting them to formal education, and preventing home schooling. We must seek balance so that parents may freely raise and educate their children. And while the State must be allowed to scrutinize the proper exercise of parenting, it must not do so in a way that directly affects and undermines family authority.

It is the purpose of this paper to present the historical record of Negro service on grand and petit juries in the United States, as that record is revealed by decisions of both state and federal courts; particularly the decisions of the United States Supreme Court. It is the desire of this treatise that such record shall be presented fairly. Finally, it is the aim of this document to present this historical record of cases in such a manner as to allow the prediction of certain potential developments visible in the course of justice. This then is a presentation of the record of the systematic exclusion of the Negro race in the matter of service on grand and petit juries in the United States, and with especial attention to the State of Texas.

Teachers are the motivating force and role models for many learners in our schools around the country. They take on the role of teacher, parent, diplomat, doctor, police officer, confidant, nanny, disciplinarian and moral compass, among other roles. They are vilified and slated in our media and are often the scapegoats for perceived ills, real or otherwise, found in our schools, to the detriment of the image of the profession. This is especially true where teachers and schools do not have a clear direction and clarity on what their duty of care is as regards truancy, safety and the pastoral role towards learners in our schools. Legislation provides a legal framework for this study, starting with the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, and the legal dimensions include the Bill of Rights, various legislative Acts, common law and case law, with terms such as the in loco parentis principle also included, which govern the teacher’s duty of care for learners. The duty of care places an obligation on the teacher in a legal sense through the duty imposed by law, and in the professional sense through the expectation placed on the teacher through the employment contract that the teacher has with the Department of Basic Education. The literature suggests that truancy of learners has many causes and that teachers could be a contributing factor to the causes. Several contributions have been made regarding safety and discipline of learners in schools in South Africa. However, not much appears to have been done in this country to determine the causes of truancy and whether teachers have an influence on its occurrence in schools. The relevant literature further suggests that the social aspects that influence truancy are not clear. The question arises whether teachers should interrogate the social aspects to determine their influence on a case of truancy. The purpose of this study was therefore to determine the legal interpretation of the teachers’ duty of care with regard to truancy of learners. A qualitative approach was used for the study. Semi-structured interviews were conducted at schools and with a lawyer and a judge to determine how they view this duty of care in schools, whether pastoral care is practised, and if teachers realise the extent of the law as regards negligence, and their duty as regards truancy especially. The interpretive paradigm would, through the semi-structured interviews, reveal how schools view the duty of care and pastoral care, as well as truancy in schools. The main causes and the extent of truancy in schools, the guidance and support that teachers can expect from the Department of Education to fulfil the seven duties or roles that are expected from teachers in the National Education Policy Act (1996), as well as the common-law duty of in loco parentis, would become clearer. The interviews provided data that no person is above the law and that ignorance of the law is no excuse. The study could be helpful to schools, the Department of Education and universities that train teachers, to include more training on specific issues and case studies involving education law and the duties of teachers, from both a legal and a professional perspective. The Department of Basic Education could find it helpful in monitoring and control at schools about matters involving discipline, safety and care of learners, and the duties of teachers at schools. Although teachers may know something about the duty of care or have heard about it, they are in the dark regarding the interpretation of the legal requirements and the repercussions that could flow from that duty. The second conclusion is that pastoral care appears to be doing well in schools although teachers are under pressure with the implementation of the new syllabus. The third conclusion is that truancy is rife in high schools and that two of the causes, drugs and pregnancy, are chiefly to blame for it and must be addressed. Fourthly, the social structure and the environment in the family should be looked into to try to reduce truancy. The study provides a legal interpretation of the teacher’s duty of care owed to learners, specifically regarding truancy and its causes. It will mean making a contribution to the body of knowledge that will include, but not be limited to, the insight gained by a look into the life world of the teacher regarding learner truancy, as well as taking a factual journey through the courts, discussing cases brought before them. # Onderwysers dien as rolmodelle en bron van motivering vir baie leerders in ons skole landwyd. Hulle vervul die rol van onderwyser, ouer, diplomaat, dokter, polisiebeampte, vertroueling, kinderoppasser, tugmeester en morele kompas, om maar ʼn paar te noem. Hulle word dikwels in die media swart gesmeer, gekritiseer en as sondebokke voorgehou vir gewaande of werklike ongerymdhede wat in ons skole plaasvind, baie keer tot nadeel van die beeld van die beroep. Dit kom veral voor wanneer onderwysers en skole nie duidelike leiding het oor wat hulle sorgsaamheidsplig is rakende stokkiesdraai, veiligheid en hul pastorale rol teenoor leerders in ons skole nie. Wetgewing voorsien ʼn regsraamwerk vir hierdie studie. Dit begin by die Grondwet van die Republiek van Suid Afrika wat die Handves van Menseregte omvat, en sluit in verskillende ander wette sowel as die gemene en regspraak. Die wetgewing inkorporeer konsepte soos die in loco parentisbeginsel, wat die sorgsaamheidsplig van onderwysers jeens leerders omskryf. Die sorgsaamheidsplig plaas ‘n regsverpligting op die onderwyser kragtens die wetgewing, tesame met die beroepsvereistes van die dienskontrak met die Departement van Basiese Onderwys. Die literatuur dui daarop dat daar talle redes is waarom leerders stokkies draai en dat onderwysers moontlik ‘n bydraende faktor kan wees. Verskeie bydraes is gelewer ten opsigte van die veiligheid en dissipline van leerders in skole in Suid-Afrika. Dit wil egter voorkom asof daar nog nie veel in die land nagevors is om die oorsake van stokkiesdraaiery te bepaal en of onderwysers ‘n invloed op die voorkoms daarvan in skole het nie. Die betrokke literatuur dui verder daarop dat die sosiale aspekte wat stokkiesdraaiery beїnvloed, nie duidelik is nie. Die vraag ontstaan nou of onderwysers sosiale aspekte moet ondersoek om hulle invloed op ‘n stokkiesdraai-geval te bepaal. Die doel van die studie was om die wetlike interpretasie van die sorgsaamheidsplig van onderwysers teenoor leerders wat stokkiesdraai, te ondersoek. ‘n Kwalitatiewe benadering is gebruik vir hierdie studie. Semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude is gevoer by skole en met ‘n regsgeleerde en ‘n regter om te bepaal wat hulle opvatting van die sorgsaamheidsplig in skole is, of pastorale sorg toegepas word en of onderwysers besef wat is die omvang van die wet ten opsigte van nalatigheid en spesifiek hulle plig ten opsigte van stokkiesdraaiery. Hierdie interpretatiewe paradigma bepaal, deur middel van die semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude, wat skole se opvattings van die sorgsaamheidsplig en pastorale sorg is, en ook jeens stokkiesdraaiery in skole. Dit kan ook lig werp op watter leiding en ondersteuning onderwysers van die Onderwysdepartement kan verwag om die sewe pligte of rolle van onderwysers wat in die Wet op Nasionale Onderwysbeleid (1996) omskryf word, te kan vervul, asook die gemeneregsplig van in loco parentis. Die onderhoude lewer ook data op wat aantoon dat geen mens bo die reg verhewe is nie en dat onkunde aangaande die reg nie ‘n verskoning is nie. Hierdie studie behoort nuttig te wees vir skole, die Onderwysdepartement en universiteite wat onderwysers oplei, om meer opleiding te verskaf oor spesifieke aspekte en gevallestudies aangaande onderwysreg en die pligte van opvoeders vanuit beide ʼn regsoogpunt en ʼn professionele oogpunt. Die Departement van Basiese Onderwys kan dit nuttig vind in monitering en beheer by skole met betrekking tot dissipline, veiligheid en sorg van leerders, en die pligte van onderwysers by skole. Dit blyk dat, alhoewel onderwysers moontlik iets weet of al gehoor het van die sorgsaamheidsplig, hulle min weet van die wetlike vereiste en die uitwerking daarvan op die plig. Die tweede gevolgtrekking is dat pastorale sorg in skole oënskynlik goed toegepas word alhoewel onderwysers onder druk verkeer met die uitvoering van die nuwe kurrikulum. Die derde gevolgtrekking is dat stokkiesdraaiery algemeen voorkom in die hoërskool en dat dwelms en swangerskap twee hoofoorsake is wat aandag moet kry. Vierdens, moet die sosiale struktuur en die gesinsomgewing ondersoek word om stokkiesdraaiery te probeer verminder. Hierdie studie verskaf ‘n wetlike vertolking van die sorgsaamheidsplig van onderwysers teenoor leerders, spesifiek rakende stokkiesdraai en die oorsake daarvan. Dit lewer ook ‘n bydrae tot die korpus van kennis, onder meer oor die insigte wat die ondersoek verleen in die lewenswêreld van die onderwyser teenoor leerders wat stokkies draai. Ten slotte onderneem dit ‘n feitlike reis deur sommige hofsake oor hierdie kwessie. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / lk2014 / Education Management and Policy Studies / PhD / Unrestricted