Le point de départ de cette thèse est le constat que dans les systèmes de santé post-soviétiques les paiements informels aux professionnels de santé perdurent bien au-delà de la transition post-socialiste, et ce malgré les vagues de réforme successives du système de santé.Dans le même temps depuis l'indépendance de la République du Tadjikistan, une défiance profonde envers certains professionnels de santé s'est développée et le renoncement aux soins s'est accru, touchant plus particulièrement les populations vulnérables. Quel rôle jouent alors les différentes pratiques de rémunération informelle ? Sont-elles source de défiance ou un moyen de restaurer la confiance ? Les paiements informels sont-ils ajustés au niveau de vie des patients ou source d'inégalités entre patients ?D'après les indicateurs d'équité mobilisés et contrairement aux idées reçues, les paiements informels ne permettent pas de rendre le système progressif et de garantir l'accès à tous. Les populations les plus démunies cumulent plus de renoncement aux soins.Face à ces barrières à l'accès aux soins, différentes stratégies sont mises en place par les ménages : solidarités informelles, endettement, recours à la médecine traditionnelle, mobilisation de son capital social.On étudie alors, plus précisément, dans quelle mesure la migration, phénomène massif au Tadjikistan, fait partie de ces stratégies et dans quelle mesure les remises de fonds permettent aux ménages bénéficiaires d'améliorer leur accès aux soins. / This dissertation begins with the observation that informal payments to healthcare professionals in post-soviet health systems persisted well beyond the post-socialist transition and despite the successive waves of health care reform.During this transition period, since the independence of the Republic of Tajikistan, there has been a deterioration of trust towards certain health professionals which has been associated with increased forgone care, especially among vulnerable populations. What is the role played by the different informal payment practices? Are they a source of mistrust or a means of restoring trust? Are informal payments adjusted to patients' standard of living or a source of inequality between patients?According to the equity indicators mobilized and contrary to popular belief, informal payments do not make the system progressive and do not guarantee that there will be access for all. The poorest are more likely to forgo care.To cope with these barriers in accessing care, different strategies are put in place by households: informal solidarity, indebtedness, reliance on traditional medicine, mobilization of social capital.More specifically, we then study if migration, a relatively important phenomenon in Tajikistan, is part of these strategies and to what extent remittances enable beneficiary households to improve their access to healthcare.

Distribution and payment of profit in joint stock company and advance payment Abstract Although the theme of this diploma thesis may seem traditional, its topicality results from the ongoing expert debate of legal doctrine and the recent legislative activity, resulting into the adoption of Act No. 33/2020 Coll. that will change the legal environment in which the distribution, payment of profits and advances on it occur. This thesis aims to map selected problematic issues and to analyze them, considering expert opinions of legal doctrine, domestic jurisprudence and to some extent as well the foreign legal regulation. To achieve this goal, the legislation on which ground problematic questions arise is also considered. This thesis is divided into five chapters, the last three of which can be described as crucial. The first chapter lays out the conceptual definition of profit, dividends, and royalties, as well as the comparison between the right to profit and the right to a share in profit while not leaving aside equity and other own resources. The following chapter deals with the different types of profit-related shares in relation to their classification as preferred shares, shares with a different share of profit, a fixed share or shares with a subordinate share of profit. This chapter also comments on...

Risken att en obehörig part kan komma över och använda en enskild konsuments identitets-handlingar är stor, samtidigt som individens möjlighet att kontrollera hur och när dess iden-titet används är liten. Problemformuleringen som skulle besvaras var hur identitetsstölder och bedrägerier på internet kunde minimeras samtidigt som konsumenten får ett ökat infly-tande över hanteringen av sin identitet. Målsättningen var att centralisera och skapa ett gemensamt förhållningssätt för identitets-hantering på internet till förmån för konsumenterna, och på så vis minimera spridning av egna lösningar för identitetshantering hos enskilda aktörer. Lösningen resulterade i en systemmodell med förutsättningar för att autentisera konsumen-ten, hantera filter för hur enskilda identitetshandlingar får användas på internet, samt för att möjliggöra kommunikation med konsumenten genom att skicka notifikationer om händelser som uppstått kopplat till en specifik identitet. Genom en användarportal skulle konsumen-ten kunna administrera sina filter för olika e-tjänster och webbutiker samt få en överblick över specifika händelser som inträffat. En prototyp togs fram för att demonstrera systemmodellens grundläggande funktionalitet i praktiken. Denna kom att innefatta funktionalitet för att autentisera konsumenten, skicka notifikationer om händelser och kontrollera existerande filter för en specifik identitet. Pro-totypen kom att bestå av ett förenklat system enligt den modell som tagits fram, med ett tillhörande API samt två modeller motsvarande en webbutik och en betalningsväxel som skulle nyttja funktionaliteten genom att anropa systemets API. Lösningen utvärderades baserat på det uppnådda resultatet från intervjuer med experter inom problemområdet och genomförd funktionskontroll av den framtagna prototypen. Ge-nom utvärderingen kunde slutsatsen dras att identitetsbaserade bedrägerier med stor sanno-likhet skulle sjunka drastiskt och att den enskilde konsumentens inflytande och medveten-het skulle stärkas. Den största bidragande faktorn till slutsatsen ansågs främst vara det kon-sistenta och standardiserade sätt som skapats för autentisering av och kommunikation med konsumenten. På så vis skulle aktörerna själva avsätta delar av den funktionalitet och de säkerhetsrisker som ansågs finnas i anslutning till hanteringen av identiteter på internet. Svårigheterna med den föreslagna lösningen ansågs vara att få konsumenter, webbutiker och betalningsväxlar att ansluta sig till ett centralt system då man av affärsmässiga skäl väljer att behålla särskilda delar internt. / There's a high risk that an unauthorized party can gain access to and use a consumer's iden-tity. This while the ability to control how and when a personal identity is used is small. The question to be answered were regarding how identity theft and online fraud could be mi-nimized and give the consumers a greater influence and more control over the management of their identity online. The goal was to centralize and establish a common approach for identity management on-line, with greater benefits for consumers. Through central service individual consumers would be able to set conditions for which online shops and services would be able to access their identities and grant access in each specific transaction. This would remove the need for non-central control of identities and as a result remove the need for independent storage of identity information. The solution would result in a system model with the potential to authenticate the consu-mer, managing conditions for how individual identity documents may be used online and to provide the consumer with a online history by sending notifications of events that has occurred with regard to a specific identity. A prototype was developed to demonstrate the basic functionality in practice. This included the functionality to authenticate the consumer with Mobile BankID, send notifications about events and check existing conditions regarding a specific identity. This prototype came to consist of a simplified system according to the model developed, an associated API, and two models representing an online store and a payment provider that would utilize the functionality of the system by calling the API. The proposed solution was evaluated through two interviews with experts in the fields of IT Security and e-commerce. The conclusion was that identity fraud would probably drop drastically and the individual consumer influence and awareness would be fortified. The main reason for this was considered to be primarily through the consistent and standardized way for authentication of and communication with the consumer. This would remove the individual risk for online services. The challenge with this proposed solution is believed to be getting consumers, online re-tailers and payment providers to accept a central solution instead of relying on internally developed and disconnected solution.

The objective of this research is to understand how consumers perceive mobile payment services and the consumers’ maturity level to adopt mobile payments in the Swedish market. To reach our objective interviews were conducted asking about consumers experience with current payment methods and how consumers perceive mobile payment services. Questions from the interviews are derived from theories about technology adoption mainly from Diffusion of Innovations and Technology Acceptance Model. In addition questions about how consumers perceive mobile payment services are based on existing and concept based features. The results show that consumers are open to, and can even consider paying to use the mobile phone as a payment instrument. At the moment mobile payment services are either based on Near Field Communication (NFC) or Quick Response (QR) code technologies at Point of Sale(POS) purchases. Consumer perceive each payment solution differently; NFC based payments were perceived as more convenient while QR code were perceived as more secure. In addition mobile payment services have the potential to incorporate additional features that can increase its attractiveness, such as storing loyalty cards digitally and the ability to transfer moneybetween accounts. The maturity level among the consumers are in an early stage because their knowledge about mobile payment services is very low at the moment, due to that the interviewees did not consider themselves as early adopters when new technologie s are introduced.

The mobile payments industry, which is currently at an early stage of development, is taking the direction to be established mainly as an NFC-based industry, and, moreover, led by the mobile digital wallets setting. A mobile digital wallet is a complete payment app for your NFC-enabled mobile phone that enables consumers to pay at stores at the point of sale with a mobile phone. The digital wallet, which is associated with a credit card, integrates all payment-related services like the management and storage of receipts, coupons and offers, and loyalty cards. Currently, there are three big partnerships going ahead of the NFC mPayments stream: Google Wallet, VISA’s Digital Wallet and ISIS Mobile Wallet. Each one of these three mobile digital wallets is led by an actor coming from a different industry of origin. Google Wallet is led by Google, an internet and technology actor. VISA’s Digital Wallet is managed by Visa, a traditional payment processor. And ISIS Mobile Wallet is led by three of the largest US telecom operators: AT&T, T-Mobile and Verizon. Thus, applying a business network theory to analyse how the industry of origin of the mobile digital wallet affects the interaction within the partnership formed is a unique and perfectly fitted opportunity. The aim of this Master Thesis was to analyse the influence, regarding interaction, of the origin industry of the leading partners on the NFC-based mobile digital wallet partnerships of the mobile payments developing industry. A literature review on business network theory was conducted, in order to identify key features of the business landscape affecting interaction on business networks, as well as an industry analysis of the mobile payments developing industry. Then, the business network theory approach was applied to the study of the mobile payments digital wallet setting, conducting a discussion based both on the industry analysis performed and a set of interviews with experts on the mobile payments industry.

En un mundo donde la transformación digital avanza a un ritmo veloz y aparecen de forma exponencial nuevas soluciones y capacidades tecnológicas, las grandes compañías necesitan sacar más y mejores productos al mercado. Sin embargo, sus pesadas arquitecturas tecnológicas legadas y sus capacidades de integración y escalabilidad no les permiten llegar al mercado en el tiempo y forma deseado. En este contexto, la investigación se centra en la creación de una arquitectura en la nube que permita habilitar, implantar, desarrollar e integrar servicios, soluciones y sistemas transaccionales de distinta naturaleza de forma segura, escalable, resiliente y ágil. La validación de la misma con el desarrollo de 3 patentes en explotación que implementan casos prácticos, ofrece veracidad al modelo propuesto para resolver el problema.

The digitalization of our world is happening at a rapid pace. In the last few years there has been an avalanche of new technologies that could benefit businesses, such as; artificial intelligence, internet of things and blockchain. To explain blockchain in short one can say that it is a ledger that cannot be changed and the information that is stored on the ledger will be there forever, with the information being stored in a decentralized manner and everyone with the right permissions get access to the same data at the same time. The information networks that build our society today are largely central, big institutions keep information stored centrally in massive data centers. On the contrary, blockchain enables distribution of the information to a myriad of smaller data storages, providing security of the data in the decentralization. Blockchain and its implementation in trade finance and international payments is something that is explored in this thesis, as well as the barriers that impede a large-scale implementation of blockchain in the financial sector in Sweden.  Every year trade finance accounts for approximately 17 trillion USD worldwide, this is a process that is still paper intense and slow. The use case for blockchain has been realized within this sector as there are operating trade finance platforms based on blockchain or distributed ledger technology, but how does blockchain really improve this sector? During this degree project this has been one of the questions asked and the answer is clear, blockchain will bring efficiency and transparency to trade finance. International payments is also an area that has been researched during this project as it is right now a costly and slow process, the use case for blockchain or distributed ledger technology has been realized in this sector as well, but the implementation seems to be further away. The main reasons why international payments are seen as a use case for blockchain is the same as the aforementioned - efficiency and transparency.  Sweden has yet to see a large-scale implementation of blockchain, some of the barriers found are the challenges of collaboration and agreeing on governance, as well as doubts about the technology from the broad mass as it has yet to be proven efficient and reliable in a large-scale, long term setting. Additionally there are already functioning payment infrastructure in use in Sweden and the cost of implementing blockchain is thus far outweighing the benefits for implementing it.

Den snabba framfarten av blockkedjetekniken samt teknikens disruptiva möjligheter inom den finansiella sektorn har lett fram till vad denna studien undersöker; blockkedjeteknikens påverkan på utlandsbetalningar och huruvida marknaden för utlandsbetalningar påverkas av den ökade utforskningen och användningen av tekniken. Faktorerna kostnad tid och säkerhet kopplat till utlandsbetalningar analyseras för att ta reda på hur dessa skulle kunna påverkas. För att lättare få en förståelse för kostnader, tid och säkerhet kopplat till utlandsbetalningar inom bankindustrin utreds även hur en traditionell utlandsbetalning går till. När en ny disruptiv teknik växer fram och börjar användas i allt större omfång kan det frambringa konsekvenser som påverkar hela branschen. Därav tar denna studie även upp hur den finansiella marknaden kan komma att förändras till följd av blockkedjetekniken och vad det kan innebära för organisationer. Fintech-bolag har på senare år tagit allt större plats på den finansiella marknaden och fortsätter att styrka deras marknadsposition. Samtidigt som banker måste anpassa sig till teknikens utveckling måste de även förhålla sig till fintech-bolagens starka framväxt. Många storbanker investerar i fintech-bolag för att på så sätt kunna följa med den snabba digitala utvecklingen. Allianser mellan banker och fintech-bolag benämns fintech 2.0. Tack vare teknikens snabba utveckling i samband med digitaliseringen är det svårt att förutspå vad som kommer att definiera den finansiella sektorn i framtiden. Fortsatt forskning inom området är nödvändigt för att förstå hur processer, organisationer och marknader kommer att förändras till följd av utvecklingen. / The rapid progress of blockchain technology and the disruptive possibilities of technology in the financial sector has led to what this study examines; the impact of blockchain technology on cross-border payments and whether the market for foreign payments is affected by the increased exploration and use of the technology. Factors such as cost, time and security linked to cross-border payments are analyzed to find out how these could be affected. In order to get an understanding of costs, time and security linked to cross-border payments in the banking industry, we also investigate how a traditional cross-border payment is being executed. When a new disruptive technique emerges and begins to be used in a wider range, it can cause consequences that affect the entire industry. Hence, this study also examines how the financial market may change as a result of blockchain technology and what it might mean to organizations. In recent years, fintech companies have taken more place in the financial market and continued to strengthen their market position. While banks must adapt to the technology development, they must also relate to the strong growth of the fintech companies. Many major banks invest in fintech companies in order to be able to follow the fast digital development. Alliances between banks and fintech companies are called fintech 2.0. Thanks to the rapid development of technology in connection with digitization, it is difficult to predict what will define the financial sector in the future. Continuing research in the field is necessary to understand how processes, organizations and markets will change as a result of the development.

La téléphonie mobile occupe une place importante dans notre société. Nous sommes passés de téléphones n’ayant que pour principale fonction la communication, à de véritables instruments de développement économiques. Désormais utilisées dans le monde entier et adopté par des populations issues de toutes les classes sociales, les transactions effectuées par la téléphonie mobile doivent aujourd’hui indéniablement être astreintes à un encadrement juridique efficace, orienté sur la protection des consommateurs de ces services. Dans le cadre de notre étude, nous avons décidé de nous consacrer à l’analyse des prestations de services de paiements mobiles. Ces dernières, qui sont particulièrement appréciées des populations africaines, nous ont menés à analyser le contrat qui lie les consommateurs de ces services. Malgré l’existence de certaines règles importantes, il est apparu que de nombreuses insuffisances mettant en danger le consommateur pouvaient être relevées. Cette réalité n’est que le fruit de plusieurs obstacles qui se dressent face à l’élaboration d’un cadre juridique adapté aux consommateurs. Ils proviennent essentiellement du fait que le continent africain n’est autre que celui qui accueille cette nouvelle technologie, qui n’a pas encore été appréhendée par d’autres continents dont certains États membres ont longtemps constitué un exemple pour ceux-ci. Même au sein du continent africain, les efforts déployés par certains États d’Afrique de l’Est n’ont pu être textuellement retranscrits, au vu de la particularité de chaque État, et de chaque système juridique. Dans le cadre de notre étude, nous verrons comment le législateur pourrait être en mesure de réduire les inégalités qui existent entre le consommateur d’une part, et les professionnels d’autre part. / Mobile telephony has an important place in our society. We have gone from mobile phones having only the main function of communication, to real instruments of economic development. Now used around the world and adopted by populations from all social classes, transactions carried out by mobile telephony must now undoubtedly be subject to an effective legal framework geared towards the protection of consumers of these services. As part of our study, we decided to devote ourselves to the analysis of the provision of mobile payment services. These transactions, which are particularly appreciated by the African populations, have led us to analyze the contract that binds the consumers of these services. Despite the existence of certain important rules, it appeared that many shortcomings which endangered the consumer must be noted. This reality is only the fruit of several obstacles that stand in the way of the development of a legal framework adapted to consumers. They are mainly due to the fact that the African continent is no other than the one which develops this new technology, which has not yet been approved by other continents of which some member states have been an example for them. Even within the African continent, the efforts made by some West African states could not be textually transcribed, because of the particularity of each state, and each legal system. As part of our study, we will see how the legislator could be able to reduce the inequalities that exist between consumers on the one hand, and professionals on the other.

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