Introdução: A Depressão é uma condição relativamente comum, de curso crónico, recorrente, estando frequentemente associada com incapacitação funcional e comprometimento da saúde física. Entre os fatores associados, encontram-se situações de abuso e negligência, entre outros. O eixo Hipotálamo-Pituitária-Adrenal (HPA) desempenha um papel fundamental na resposta aos estímulos externos e internos, podendo desencadear episódios psiquiátricos em indivíduos predispostos. Além disso, estudos têm corroborado que alterações no funcionamento do eixo HPA estão associadas à gravidade de quadros depressivos e são indicativas de um prognóstico desfavorável. Objetivo: O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar pacientes depressivos com presença ou ausência de estresse precoce, identificando as alterações no funcionamento do eixo HPA e a resposta terapêutica. Metodologia: A amostra foi composta por 30 sujeitos, sendo 20 pacientes depressivos em regime de semi-internação no Hospital Dia do Hospital das Clinicas da FMRP-USP e 10 controles saudáveis. Além disso, os sujeitos do estudo foram divididos em: um grupo de pacientes depressivos (n=20) e controles saudáveis (n=10); um subgrupo de pacientes respondedores (n=8) e não respondedores ao tratamento (n=8); um subgrupo de pacientes deprimidos com presença de Estresse Precoce (n=13), ausência de Estresse Precoce (n=7) e de controles saudáveis (n=10). Os pacientes foram avaliados por meio de Entrevista Clínica de acordo com os critérios diagnósticos do DSM-IV, para a confirmação do diagnóstico. Para avaliação da gravidade dos sintomas depressivos foi aplicada a Escala de Depressão de Hamilton (HAM-\'D IND. 21\'), sendo incluídos apenas pacientes com HAM-\'D IND. 21\', \'> OU =\'17. Utilizamos também a Escala de Avaliação de Depressão de Montgomery-Asberg (MADRS) para avaliação da resposta terapêutica, sendo considerados respondedores os pacientes que obtiveram uma redução da pontuação da MADRS \'> OU =\' 50% entre a admissão e 60 dias após. A presença de Estresse Precoce foi confirmada através da aplicação do Questionário Sobre Traumas na Infância (CTQ). Foram utilizados também, o Inventário de Depressão de Beck (BDI), o inventário de Ansiedade de Beck (BAI), a Escala de Ideação Suicida de Beck (BSI), a Escala de Desesperança de Beck (BHS), a Escala Hospitalar de Ansiedade e Depressão (HADS) e a Escala de Impulsividade de Barratt (BIS-11) para a avaliação dos sintomas psiquiátricos. A avaliação endócrina foi realizada através do cortisol salivar, sendo coletado às 22h, ao acordar, 30 e 60 minutos após acordar e às 8h30min na admissão e após 60 dias. Resultados: Nossos resultados demonstraram uma associação entre a gravidade dos quadros depressivos com o aumento das tentativas de suicídio, do uso abusivo de bebidas alcoólicas e da obesidade, bem como com o aumento dos sintomas de ansiedade, desesperança, impulsividade e da comorbidade com os Transtornos de Personalidade. Encontramos que além desses fatores, a resposta inadequada ao tratamento também pode ser influenciada pela história prévia de Estresse Precoce. Além disso, nossos achados indicaram que a maior gravidade dos pacientes depressivos da nossa amostra se correlacionaram com uma maior atividade do eixo HPA, e este aumento foi associado a níveis mais elevados de cortisol salivar tanto na admissão quanto 60 dias após o tratamento nos pacientes não respondedores. Evidenciamos também que este aumento da atividade do eixo HPA pode ser influenciado pelo Estresse Precoce, uma vez que os pacientes com presença EP apresentaram níveis maiores de cortisol salivar, mesmo após o tratamento. Conclusão: Com base nos resultados apresentados, nossos achados apontam para o papel etiológico do eixo HPA na depressão, estando este muitas vezes associado a situações deEP que acarretam em uma maior gravidade dos pacientes e piora da resposta terapêutica. Dessa forma, nossos dados sugarem que a avaliação do eixo HPA possa prever a recorrência da psicopatologia, servindo assim, como um potencial biomarcador na depressão destes pacientes. / Introduction: Depression is a common condition of chronic course, recurrent, and is often associated with functional disability and impaired physical health. Among the associated factors are situations of early life stress, as abuse and neglect. The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis plays a crucial role in response to external and internal stimuli, and may precipitate psychiatric episodes in predisposed individuals. Furthermore, studies have confirmed that changes in the functioning of the HPA axis are associated with the severity of depressive and are indicative of a poor prognosis. Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate patients with depressive on presence or absence of early life stress, identifying changes in HPA axis functioning and treatment response. Methods: The sample of 30 subjects, 20 depressed patients in partial inpatient treatment in the Day Hospital of the University Hospital of the School of Medicine of Ribeirao Preto- University of Sao Paulo and 10 healthy controls. In addition, the study subjects were divided into a group of responders (n = 8) and nonresponders (n = 8), a group with presence Early Life Stress (n = 13) or absence of Early Life Stress (n = 7) and a group of healthy controls (n = 10). Patients were evaluated using Clinical Interview according to the diagnostic criteria of DSM-IV, to confirm the diagnosis. To evaluate the severity of depressive symptoms was applied to Hamilton Depression Scale (HAM-\'D IND. 21\') and included only patients with HAM-\'D IND.21\' \'> OR =\' 17. We also use the Rating Scale Montgomery-Asberg Depression (MADRS) to evaluate therapeutic response, patients were considered responders who achieved a reduction of MADRS score \'> OR =\' 50% between admission and 60 days after. The presence of Early Life Stress was confirmed by applying the Questionnaire about Childhood Trauma (CTQ). We also used the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), the Scale for Suicidal Ideation Beck (BSI), the Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS), the Hospital Anxiety Scale and Depression Scale (HADS) and the Scale Barratt Impulsiveness (BIS-11) for evaluation of psychiatric symptoms. The endocrine evaluation was performed using salivary cortisol, being collected at 22h, on awaking, 30 and 60 minutes after awaking up at 8:30 am and at baseline and after 60 days. Results: Our results demonstrated an association between the severity of depression with, attempt suicide, abuse of alcohol and obesity, as well as increased symptoms of anxiety, hopelessness, and impulsivity, personality disorders. We found that in addition to these factors, the poor response to treatment can also be influenced by the history of Early Life Stress. Moreover, our findings indicate that the greater severity of depressive patients were correlated with increased activity of the HPA axis, and this increase was associated with higher levels of salivary cortisol both at admission and 60 days after treatment in nonresponders. We evidenced also that the increased activity of the HPA axis can be influenced by Early Life Stress, since the patients with EP had higher levels of salivary cortisol, even after treatment. Conclusion: Therefore, based on the presented results, our findings suggest the etiological role of the HPA axis in depression, which itself is often associated with situations of EP that lead to greater severity of patients and worsening of therapeutic response. Thus, our data suggest that the assessment of the HPA axis can predict the recurrence of psychopathology, thereby serving as a potential biomarker for depression in these patients.

Introdução: Crescentes evidências indicam que o abandono e o abuso infantis são fatores de risco para transtornos psiquiátricos. Estudos realizados tanto em animais como em humanos sugerem que o estresse nas fases iniciais de desenvolvimento pode induzir alterações persistentes na capacidade do eixo HPA em responder ao estresse na vida adulta e que esse mecanismo pode levar a uma maior suscetibilidade à depressão. Esta desregulação do eixo HPA parece estar relacionada às mudanças na capacidade dos glicocorticóides circulantes em exercer seu feedback negativo na secreção dos hormônios do eixo HPA por meio da ligação aos receptores de mineralocorticóides (MR) e glicocorticóides (GR) nos tecidos do eixo HPA. Objetivo: O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a resposta do eixo HPA frente aos agonistas e antagonistas dos GR e MR em pacientes depressivos com e sem estresse precoce (EP) e controles. Metodologia: Selecionamos uma amostra total de 75 sujeitos composta por um grupo de pacientes com diagnóstico de episódio depressivo atual (n=47) e um grupo de controles saudáveis (n=28). Os pacientes foram divididos em 2 grupos de acordo com o estresse precoce: um grupo de pacientes depressivos com EP (n=33) e um grupo de pacientes depressivos sem estresse precoce (n=14). Os pacientes foram avaliados por meio da Mini Entrevista Neuropsiquiátrica Internacional (MINI-Plus), para a confirmação do diagnóstico. Para avaliação da gravidade dos sintomas depressivos foi aplicada a Escala de Depressão GRID de Hamilton (GRID-HAM-D21), sendo incluídos apenas pacientes com HAM-D21>=16. Para a avaliação do estresse precoce foi aplicado o Questionário Sobre Traumas na Infância (CTQ). Utilizamos também a Escala de Avaliação de Depressão de Montgomery-Asberg (MADRS), o Inventário de Depressão de Beck (BDI-II), o Inventário de Ansiedade de Beck (BAI), a Escala de Desesperança de Beck (BHS), a Escala de Ideação Suicida de Beck (BSI), a Escala de Impulsividade de Barratt (BIS-11) e o Questionário de Qualidade de Sono de Pittsburg (PSQI), para a avaliação dos sintomas psiquiátricos. A avaliação endócrina foi controlada por placebo, cego por parte dos controles e pacientes, não randomizada, onde os efeitos da fludrocortisona (0.5 mg), da prednisolona (5 mg), da dexametasona (0.5 mg) e da espironolactona (400mg) foram avaliados através do hormônio adrenocorticotrópico (ACTH) plasmático, do cortisol plasmático e salivar, da prolactina plasmática e do sulfato de desidroepiandrosterona (DHEA-S) plasmático. A secreção de cortisol salivar e dos hormônios plasmáticos foi avaliada em todos os sujeitos, após terem tomado no dia anterior às 22h: uma cápsula de placebo, fludrocortisona, prednisolona, dexametasona e espironolactona. A secreção de cortisol salivar foi avaliada às 22h após a tomada da medicação ou do placebo, ao acordar, 30 e 60 min após acordar e às 9h (antes da coleta plasmática), para avaliação da resposta do cortisol ao acordar (CAR) e do ritmo circadiano do cortisol (RC). Foi realizado também uma coleta plasmática as 9h nos dias seguintes após os desafios para medir o cortisol plasmático, o ACTH, o DHEA-S e a prolactina. Resultados: Os pacientes depressivos apresentaram níveis basais menores de cortisol salivar, de prolactina e de DHEA-S e níveis maiores na relação cortisol/DHEA-S. Não foram encontradas diferenças entre os pacientes depressivos e os controles nos níveis basais de ACTH, de cortisol plasmático, na CAR e no RC. Os pacientes depressivos apresentaram níveis menores de ACTH e de DHEA-S após a dexametasona e a fludrocortisona e tenderam a apresentar níveis menores de cortisol salivar após a fludrocortisona. Após a espironolactona encontramos níveis menores de ACTH, de cortisol salivar e de DHEA-S e níveis maiores no índice cortisol/DHEA-S nos pacientes depressivos. Os pacientes depressivos apresentaram também níveis menores de DHEA-S após a prednisolona, porém não foram encontradas diferenças entre os grupos nos demais hormônios avaliados após a prednisolona. Não foram encontradas diferenças no cortisol plasmático e na prolactina após os desafios entre os pacientes depressivos e os controles. Com relação à avaliação do estresse precoce nas medidas hormonais, encontramos uma tendência dos pacientes com EP apresentarem níveis menores basais de prolactina e após a fludrocortisona, a prednisolona, a dexametasona e a espironolactona do que os pacientes sem EP. No entanto, não foram encontradas diferenças entre os grupos nas demais medidas hormonais basais e após os desafios avaliadas neste estudo. Conclusão: Nossos achados fornecem evidências de que existem diversas alterações nas medidas hormonais relacionadas ao funcionamento do eixo HPA e de seus receptores GR e MR nos pacientes depressivos, associado à hipocortisolemia e um aumento do feedback inibitório mediado pelos GR e MR. Sugerem também o envolvimento da prolactina no desenvolvimento de quadros depressivos com estresse precoce, porém mais estudos são necessários para elucidarmos melhor a importância dos demais hormônios do eixo HPA e dos seus receptores em quadros depressivos com estresse precoce / Introduction: There are evidences indicating that child neglect and abuse are risk factors for psychiatric disorders. Studies that had as subjects animals or human suggest that stress in early phases of development may induce persistent changes in HPA axis response to stress in adulthood, which can lead to a greater susceptibility of developing depression. These abnormalities appear to be related to changes in the ability of circulating glucocorticoids and negative feedback on the secretion of HPA hormones through binding to glucocorticoid (GR) and mineralocorticoid receptors (MR) in HPA tissue. Aim: The aim of the present study was to assess HPA response after ingestion of GR and MR agonists and antagonists by depressive patients with and without early life stress (ELS) and controls. Methods: The sample was composed by a group of patients in current depressive episode (n=47), and a healthy control group (n=28). The depressed patients were divided in 2 groups, according to the presence or absence of ELS - a group with ELS (n=33) and a group without ELS (n=14). For diagnostic assessment, MINI International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI-Plus) was used. To assess the intensity of depressive symptoms, GRID-Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (GRIDHAM-D21) was applied, and for being included in the patient\'s group, subjects had to score >=16 in GRID-HAM-D21. To assess ELS, Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) was applied. Other instruments were also used in the present study to assess psychiatric symptoms: Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS), Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II), Beck Anxiety Inventory, Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS), Beck Scale for Suicide (BSI), Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11), and Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). The neuroendocrine assessment was controlled using placebo, blind to subjects, and non-randomized. The effects of fludrocortisone (0.5 mg), prednisolone (5 mg), dexamethasone (0.5 mg), and spironolactone (400mg) were assessed by measuring plasmatic adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), plasmatic and salivary cortisol, plasmatic prolactin, and plasmatic dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S). The secretion of all plasmatic hormones was assessed in all subjects in blood collection sample at 9AM, after they took a pill containg placebo or fludrocortisone or prednisolone or dexamethasone or spironolactone, the day before, at 10 PM. The secretion of salivary cortisol assessed the day before 10 PM (after the ingestion of the pill), upon awakening, 30 minutes and 60 minutes after awakening, and at 9AM (before plasmatic collection), for assessed the cortisol awakening response (CAR) and the cortisol circadian rhythm (CR). At 9 AM there was a blood sample collection to assess plasmatic cortisol, ACTH, DHEA-S and prolactin. Results: Depressive patients presented lower basal levels of salivar cortisol, plasmatic prolactin and DHEA-S, and higher levels in the ratio cortisol/DHEA-S. There were no differences between depressive patients and healthy controls in basal levels of ACTH, plasmatic cortisol, in CAR, and in CR. Depressive patients had lower levels of ACTH and DHEA-S after dexamethasone and fludrocortisone, and there was a tendency of having lower salivary cortisol levels after fludrocortisone. After spironolactone, lower levels of ACTH, salivary cortisol, DHEA-S were found, and higher levels in ratio cortisol/DHEA-S were found in depressive patients. These patients also presented lower levels of DHEA-S after prednisolone, although there were no differences between groups concerning the levels of other hormones assessed after prednisolone. There were no differences found in plasmatic cortisol and prolactin levels after all challenges between depressive patients and controls. Considering ELS and hormonal level assessment, there was a tendency of patients with ELS of presenting lower levels of prolactin after placebo, fludrocortisone, prednisolone, dexamethasone, and spironolactone than patients without ELS. Nevertheless, there were no differences between these groups concerning the other hormonal basal levels and after the pharmachological challenges. Conclusion: Our findings provide evidence that there are several changes in hormonal levels related to the functioning of the HPA axis and its receptors GR and MR in depressive patients associated to hypocortisolism and the increase of negative feedback MR- and GR- mediated. Our data also suggest the role of prolactin in the development of depressive disorder with ELS, however, more studies are needed to better highlight the importance of other hormones of HPA axis and its receptors in depressive disorders with ELS

Submitted by PPG Pediatria e Sa?de da Crian?a (pediatria-pg@pucrs.br) on 2018-09-11T11:48:41Z No. of bitstreams: 1 TESE-VERS?O_FINALLuisEduardo.pdf: 1410228 bytes, checksum: 2182e3ab4fb82033fdb96b0f40cbec8f (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Sheila Dias (sheila.dias@pucrs.br) on 2018-09-12T14:26:10Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 TESE-VERS?O_FINALLuisEduardo.pdf: 1410228 bytes, checksum: 2182e3ab4fb82033fdb96b0f40cbec8f (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-09-12T14:40:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 TESE-VERS?O_FINALLuisEduardo.pdf: 1410228 bytes, checksum: 2182e3ab4fb82033fdb96b0f40cbec8f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-04-24 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior - CAPES / Early life stress exposure is a global issue and is associated with decreased quality of life and it is considered a risk factor for several diseases. There are several evidences in the literature suggesting that early life stress impact brain development, as well as cognition and motricity. The neurobiological mechanisms behind these effects are poorly understood. Aim: This study aims to investigate the impact of an experimental model of early life stress on cognitive abilities and walk adaptability during adolescence, looking at the gene expression of targets related to learning and memory in different brain regions. Methods: Briefly, we exposed male C56BL/6 mice to the limited bedding protocol postnatal day (PND)2 to PND9 and then tested animals in the radial 8-arm maze, Y-maze and Step-Down avoidance task and Ladder Rung Walking Test at the end of adolescence. RT-qPCR was used to investigate BDNF exon IV, Drd1 and Drd2 gene expression in the mPFC, Motor Cortex and Cerebellum 2h after the task. Results: Mice raised in Limited Bedding conditions presented fewer perseverative errors compared to our reference group. This effect was followed by an increased BDNF exon IV expression in the mPFC with no differences in Drd1 and Drd2. When looking at the ability of adapt walking of mice, we found two distinct subgroups of animals that presented a superior performance (SP) when compared to controls or an inferior performance (IP). We observed that Drd1 expression is increased in the mPFC of IP animals and in the cerebellum of SP with no differences regarding Drd2 expression on mPFC, motor cortex and cerebellum. We observed that both SP and IP groups increased BDNF expression in the mPFC together with a significant difference between SP and IP groups in BDNF expression on motor cortex. We found a strong negative correlation between BDNF exon IV expression in the motor cortex and walking adaptability. No differences between groups regarding TrkB mRNA expression in any brain region investigated were observed although there is a positive correlation between TrkB expression in the mPFC and a better ability to adapt walking. Conclusions: Our study showed that mice exposed to Limited Bedding showed fewer perseveration and increased BDNF exon IV expression in the mPFC during adolescence. Also, our data suggest that exposure to Limited Bedding early in life can lead to distinct phenotypes followed by differential expression in Drd1 and BDNF in brain regions involved in the regulation of walking adaptability. / Introdu??o: A exposi??o ao estresse no in?cio da vida est? associado a uma diminui??o na qualidade de vida e ? considerada como fator de risco para diversas patologias. Ainda que o impacto do estresse precoce no desenvolvimento cerebral e cognitivo, bem como no sistema motor, esteja bem documentado na literatura, pouco se sabe sobre os mecanismos neurobiol?gicos mediadores destes efeitos. Objetivos: Este trabalho tem como objetivo investigar o impacto de um modelo experimental de estresse precoce no funcionamento cognitivo e na adaptabilidade da marcha na adolesc?ncia, avaliando a express?o g?nica de alvos relacionados ? mem?ria e aprendizagem em diferentes regi?es do c?rebro. M?todos: Camundongos machos da linhagem C57BL/6 foram expostos ao modelo de Limited Bedding do P2 ao P9 e testados no Labirinto Radial de 8 bra?os, Labirinto Y, Esquiva Inibit?ria e Escada Horizontal no final da adolesc?ncia. RT-qPCR foi realizado para investigar a express?o g?nica do exon IV do BDNF, Drd1 e Drd2 nas regi?es do mPFC, C?rtex Motor e Cerebelo. Resultados: Camundongos expostos ao modelo de Limited Bedding na inf?ncia cometeram menos erros perseverativos quando comparados ao grupo controle. Este efeito foi seguido por um aumento na express?o do exon IV do BDNF no mPFC, embora nenhuma diferen?a entre Drd1 e Drd2 tenha sido observada. Ao observar a adaptabilidade da marcha, encontramos dois subgrupos distintos de animais que apresentaram desempenho superior (SP) quando comparados aos controles ou desempenho inferior (IP). Observamos uma express?o exarcebada de Drd1 no mPFC de animais com performance inferior e aumento na express?o de Drd1 no cerebelo de animais com performance superior, sem diferen?as em rela??o ? express?o de Drd2 no mPFC, c?rtex motor e cerebelo. Observamos que ambos os grupos aumentaram a express?o do BDNF no mPFC, juntamente com uma diferen?a significativa entre os grupos SP e IP na express?o do BDNF no c?rtex motor. Encontramos uma forte correla??o negativa entre a express?o do exon IV do BDNF no c?rtex motor e a adaptabilidade da marcha. N?o foram observadas diferen?as entre os grupos em rela??o ? express?o de TrkB nas regi?es do c?rebro investigadas, embora haja uma correla??o positiva entre a express?o de TrkB no mPFC e uma melhor capacidade de adapta??o da marcha. Conclus?o: Nosso estudo demonstrou que camundongos expostos ao Limited Bedding apresentaram menos comportamentos perseverativos e aumento da express?o do exon IV do BDNF na adolesc?ncia. Al?m disso, nossos dados sugerem que a exposi??o ao Limited Bedding pode levar a fen?tipos distintos na tarefa de adaptabilidade da marcha, seguido de uma express?o diferenciada de Drd1 e BDNF em regi?es cerebrais envolvidas na adaptabilidade da marcha.

Allergic diseases are influenced by genetics and the environment. Maternal allergy appears to confer a higher risk for allergic sensitization than paternal allergy, suggesting an in utero influence. A decrease in particular infections or a lower exposure to microbial components during infancy is suggested to contribute to the high allergy prevalence in affluent societies. Toll-like receptors (TLR) 2 and 4 recognize peptidoglycan (PGN) and LPS respectively, are expressed on e.g. monocytes, and have been implicated in modulating the risk of IgE-sensitization. This thesis aimed to study the influence of maternal allergy and early microbial exposure on monocyte function and allergic sensitization during childhood. Blood samples from children participating in a prospective allergy cohort were used. Two-year old infants with allergic mothers had lower IL-6 production and reduced activation of the TLR-signalling intermediate p38-MAPK in response to PGN than children with non-allergic mothers. In 5-year old children, allergic disease and not maternal allergy influenced monocytic TLR2-regulation. Five-year olds who were seropositive for Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) at 2-years of age had a lower risk of persistent IgE-sensitization while EBV contraction after 2-years of age related to a higher risk of IgE-sensitization. Upon in vitro stimulation, NK cells from EBV+ 2-year olds produced lower IFN-g levels. EBV+ 2-year olds had also lower systemic IFN-g. In comparison to CD14++CD16- monocytes, CD14+CD16+ cells induced NK-cell IFN-g more potently in vitro, and EBV+ infants tended to have lower proportions of these CD14+CD16+ monocytes. This thesis highlights the importance of early-life microbial (EBV) exposure for a proper allergy-protective immunity. Also, maternal allergic heredity appears to influence monocytic microbial responses in early infancy. All these aspects relate to altered monocyte functionality, which suggest that they could have a role in allergic sensitization.

When and how life first emerged on the Earth is an area of intense research. Signs of the first life on Earth, including morphological fossils, are scarce and hard to interpret. An alternative approach is to study organic biomarkers, which are molecular fossils commonly considered as bona fide biosignatures. The main objective of the project is to develop an approach for analysis of single oil-bearing fluid inclusions and most importantly the detection of organic biomarkers in these inclusions. Analysis of oil-bearing fluid inclusions is advantageous since the inclusions may provide an uncontaminated sample source of Precambrian hopanes and steranes, which are key biomarkers for tracing the early evolution of life on Earth. Due to the presence of several inclusion generations, single inclusion analysis is desired in order to constrain biomarkers to specific inclusions. Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) could be an excellent tool for analysis of these types of samples. The development of the approach for analysis of single oil-bearing inclusions was done in a two-step process; i) a number of crude oils were analysed with ToF-SIMS and gas chromatography mass-spectrometry (GC-MS) to facilitate interpretation of ToF-SIMS spectra of these types of samples and, ii) a procedure that combines micrographs with ion etching and ToF-SIMS analysis was developed for analysis of inclusions. The feasibility of the technique was demonstrated for oil inclusions from the Siljan impact crater in which hopanes and steranes where detected. Single oil-bearing fluid inclusions trapped in mid-Proterozoic sandstones from Northern Australia were subsequently analyzed, and steranes and hopanes were detected in these inclusions. If applied on older inclusions this approach may help answer some of the questions regarding the emergence and evolution of life on Earth, and if applied on extraterrestrial samples, also the possibility of life on other planets and moons. / Livets uppkomst och tidiga utveckling på jorden är ett hett forskningsfält. Hur och när livet och dess olika domäner (arkéer, bakterier och eukaryoter) uppstod på jorden är fortfarande oklart vilket beror på att de första tecknen på liv, vilka inkluderar morfologiska fossil, spårfossil och isotoper, är få och svåra att tolka. Ett alternativt sätt att studera det tidiga livet är att studera organiska biomarkörer som är organiska molekyler som anses unika för liv. Huvudmålet med projektet är att utveckla en metod som kan detektera organiska biomarkörer i enskilda oljebärande vätskeinneslutningar. Vätskeinneslutningar, som är små mängder vätska (picoliter) infångad in en sten, är intressanta då de är en potentiell provkälla för prekambriska (äldre än 500 miljoner år) biomarkörer, som hopaner och steraner, vilka används för att utforska livets tidiga utveckling på jorden. Analys av enskilda inneslutningar är emellertid oftast nödvändigt för att kunna tidsavgränsa biomarkörer. På grund av att de flesta inneslutningar är små (10 µm i diameter) är det inte möjligt att analysera en enskild vätskeinneslutning med standardtekniken gaskromatografi-masspektrometri (GC-MS). Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spektrometri (ToF-SIMS) med sin höga känslighet, höga massupplösning och kapacitet för 2D-representation av analysdata och djupprofilering av prover är en utmärkt teknik för analys av enskilda inneslutningar. Metoden för analys av enskilda inneslutningar utvecklades i två steg. Först analyserades ett antal råoljor med ToF-SIMS och GC-MS för att underlätta förståelsen av ToF-SIMS-spektra från dessa typer av prover. Därefter utvecklades en metod som bestod av mikroskopering för att lokalisera inneslutningen, jonetsning för att öppna inneslutningen och ToF-SIMS analys av det exponerade innehållet. Metoden testades framgångsrikt på enskilda inneslutningar i hydrotermala vener av flusspat och kalcit i ordovicisk (488-443 miljoner år sedan) kalksten. Därefter användes den utvecklade metoden för att analysera enskilda vätskeinneslutningar i 1,43 miljarder år gammal sandsten från norra Australien, i vilka hopaner och steraner detekterades. De detekterade steranerna visar att trots att havet under denna tid var syrefritt existerade det lokala syrerika miljöer där eukaryoter kunde överleva. Om den utvecklade metoden används på ännu äldre inneslutningar, vilka har daterats till 3,2 miljarder år, kan den komma att svara på några de mest fundamentala frågorna kring livets uppkomst och tidiga utveckling. Om metoden används på utomjordiska prover kan den svara på frågan om det finns liv på andra planeter eller månar. / At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Manuscript. Paper 4: Submitted.

Ο νεογνικός χειρισμός, ένα πειραματικό μοντέλο πρώιμων εμπειριών, είναι γνωστό ότι επηρεάζει τη λειτουργία του άξονα υποθαλάμου-υπόφυσης-επινεφριδίων βελτιώνοντας την προσαρμοστικότητα, την αντιμετώπιση του στρες, τις διανοητικές ικανότητες και γενικά τις διεργασίες του εγκεφάλου που σχετίζονται με την πλαστικότητα. Προηγούμενες μελέτες έδειξαν ότι ο νεογνικός χειρισμός τροποποιεί τη σεροτονινεργική, τη ντοπαμινεργική αλλά και τη γλουταμινεργική οδό, την κύρια διεγερτική οδό στον εγκέφαλο, μέσα από εκλεκτικές επιδράσεις τόσο στους υποδοχείς NMDA όσο και στους υποδοχείς AMPA στον εγκέφαλο των επίμυων. Το σύστημα των ενδοκανναβινοειδών του εγκεφάλου, δρώντας μέσω των υποδοχέων CB1, εμπλέκεται καθοριστικά στη διατήρηση της ομοιόστασης και της ενεργειακής ισορροπίας του οργανισμού, ενώ φαίνεται να έχει «αγχολυτικό» ρόλο ρυθμίζοντας συμπεριφορές όπως η πρόσληψη τροφής, ο φόβος και το άγχος, το αίσθημα ανταμοιβής και ευφορίας. Επίσης, διαδραματίζει έναν ιδιαίτερο ρόλο στην ανάπτυξη του νευρικού συστήματος καθοδηγώντας τη δημιουργία των συνδέσεων του φλοιού με τις υποφλοιώδεις δομές. Πρόκειται για ένα δυναμικό σύστημα το οποίο δύναται να τροποποιείται με την εμπειρία, ενώ η λειτουργία του μεταβάλλεται κατά τα διάφορα αναπτυξιακά στάδια, με τις κορυφαίες αλλαγές να σημειώνονται κατά την περίοδο της εφηβείας. Σκοπός της παρούσας εργασίας ήταν να ερευνηθεί εάν ο νεογνικός χειρισμός μπορεί να επιδρά στο σύστημα των ενδοκανναβινοειδών και αν η επίδραση αυτή μπορεί να παρουσιάζεται με διαφορετικό τρόπο στην εφηβεία από την ενηλικίωση. Μελετήσαμε έτσι την έκφραση των υποδοχέων CB1 στον εγκέφαλο εφήβων και ενηλίκων επίμυων, σε περιοχές που εμπλέκονται στην αντιμετώπιση του στρες, στη μνήμη, τη μάθηση, το συναίσθημα και την ανταμοιβή, όπως ο προμετωπιαίος φλοιός, η αμυγδαλή, ο ιππόκαμπος, το ραβδωτό σώμα και ο επικλινής πυρήνας. Σύμφωνα με το παρόν πρωτόκολλο νεογνικού χειρισμού, κάθε νεογνό απομακρυνόταν από τη φωλιά για 15 λεπτά καθημερινά από την πρώτη μεταγεννητική ημέρα μέχρι τον απογαλακτισμό του, τρεις εβδομάδες μετά. Χρησιμοποιήθηκε η τεχνική του υβριδισμού in situ για την εντόπιση και ποσοτικοποίηση των επιπέδων mRNA των υποδοχέων CB1 και η μέθοδος της ποσοτικής αυτοραδιογραφίας in vitro για την μέτρηση των επιπέδων δέσμευσης του υποδοχέα. Τα αποτελέσματά της έρευνας έδειξαν ότι ο νεογνικός χειρισμός προκάλεσε μεταβολές στην έκφραση των υποδοχέων CB1, με τρόπο ειδικό σε κάθε περιοχή και συχνά διαφορετικό στους εφήβους και στους ενήλικες επίμυες. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, οι έφηβοι επίμυες με χειρισμό παρουσίασαν αυξημένα, ενώ οι ενήλικες μειωμένα επίπεδα δέσμευσης των υποδοχέων CB1 στις περιοχές του προμετωπιαίου φλοιού και του επικλινούς πυρήνα. Επιπρόσθετα, ο νεογνικός χειρισμός επέφερε αύξηση τόσο των επιπέδων mRNA όσο και των επιπέδων δέσμευσης στο ραβδωτό σώμα των εφήβων επίμυων. Αντίθετα, οι ενήλικες επίμυες που είχαν υποστεί χειρισμό παρουσίασαν μείωση στα επίπεδα του mRNA στο ραβδωτό σώμα, χωρίς μεταβολή στα επίπεδα του λειτουργικού υποδοχέα στη συγκεκριμένη περιοχή. Στην αμυγδαλή, ο νεογνικός χειρισμός προκάλεσε αύξηση στα επίπεδα του mRNA ανεξάρτητα από την ηλικία, η οποία ακολουθήθηκε από αύξηση στα επίπεδα δέσμευσης του υποδοχέα CB1 μόνο στους εφήβους επίμυες με χειρισμό, ενώ οι ενήλικες δεν παρουσίασαν στατιστικώς σημαντική μεταβολή. Οι μεταβολές στην έκφραση του υποδοχέα CB1 θεωρούμε ότι συντελούνται μέσω επιγενετικής ρύθμισης ως αποτέλεσμα του νεογνικού χειρισμού και συνιστούν μια αντισταθμιστική απάντηση στη μεταβολή της ανάδρομης ενδοκανναβινοειδούς σηματοδότησης. Έτσι, το αποτέλεσμά μας στον προμετωπιαίο φλοιό, είναι πιθανόν να αντανακλά την ενίσχυση (στους ενήλικες) ή την αποδυνάμωση (στους εφήβους) της αρνητικής ανάδρομης ρύθμισης των κορτικοειδών στον άξονα του στρες, δεδομένων των αντίρροπων μεταβολών στα επίπεδα δέσμευσης του υποδοχέα CB1 στις δύο διαφορετικές ηλικίες. Τα αποτελέσματα στην αμυγδαλή, τον επικλινή πυρήνα και το ραβδωτό σώμα υποδηλώνουν αφενός μια διαφορετική «τονική» ρύθμιση του άξονα του στρες στα έφηβα ζώα με χειρισμό, και αφετέρου μια πιθανή εξασθένιση των λειτουργιών της ανταμοιβής και της δημιουργίας συνηθειών, η οποία ίσως να οδηγεί σε μειωμένη ευαισθησία στην εμφάνιση εθισμού. Συμπερασματικά, στην παρούσα μελέτη δείξαμε ότι η έκφραση των υποδοχέων CB1 μεταβάλλεται από το νεογνικό χειρισμό, ένα μοντέλο πρώιμης εμπειρίας, με τρόπο ειδικό ανά περιοχή και σε κάποιες περιπτώσεις διαφορετικό στους εφήβους από τους ενήλικες επίμυες. Αυτή η επίδραση του νεογνικού χειρισμού μπορεί να είναι ένας από τους παράγοντες που συμβάλλουν στην αυξημένη πλαστικότητα του εγκεφάλου των ζώων που έχουν υποστεί νεογνικό χειρισμό, η οποία εκδηλώνεται τόσο σε κυτταρικό όσο και στο συμπεριφορικό επίπεδο. / Neonatal handling, an experimental model of early-life experience, is known to affect the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function, improving adaptability, coping with stress, cognitive abilities and in general brain plasticity-related processes. Previous studies have shown that neonatal handling modifies the serotonergic, the dopaminergic and the glutaminergic pathway, the major excitatory pathway in the brain, through selective effects in both NMDA and AMPA receptors in rat brain. The endocannabinoid system of the brain, acting through CB1 receptors, is critically involved in maintaining homeostasis and energy body balance and it seems to have "anxiolytic" role regulating behaviors such as eating, fear and anxiety, feeling of reward and euphoria. It also plays a specific role in neural development, guiding the establishment of cortical-subcortical connections. It is a dynamic system which can be modified by experience and its function varies at different developmental stages, with the highest changes occuring during the period of adolescence. The present study addressed the question of whether neonatal handling might affect the endocannabinoid system and whether this effect is different in adolescence than adulthood. Thus, we investigated the expression of CB1 receptors in the adolescent and adult rat brain, looking in areas involved in coping with stress, learning and memory, emotion and reward, such as prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, striatum and nucleus accumbens. According to the current neonatal handling protocol, each pup of a litter was removed from the nest for 15 min daily from the first postnatal day (PND1) until weaning (PND22). In situ hybridization and in vitro receptor autoradiography were used in order to localize and quantify CB1 receptor mRNA levels and receptor binding levels, respectively. We found that neonatal handling leads to changes in CB1 receptor expression, depending on brain region, which were different in adolescent and adult rats. More specifically, adolescent handled rats showed increased, while adults showed decreased CB1 receptor binding levels in prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens. In addition, neonatal handling induced an increase in both mRNA and binding levels in striatum of adolescents. However, adult handled rats had decreased mRNA levels in striatum, without a change in receptor binding levels in this region. In amygdala, neonatal handling brought an increase in mRNA levels regardless of age, which was followed by an increase in CB1 receptor binding levels only in adolescent handled rats, while adults showed no statistically significant change. The observed changes in CB1 receptor expression are thought to occur via epigenetic regulation in response to neonatal handling and may constitute a compensatory response to the change of retrograde endocannabinoid signaling. Thus, our result in the prefrontal cortex, may reflect strengthening (in adults) or weakening (in adolescents) of negative feedback on stress axis through corticosteroids, due to the opposite changes observed in CB1 receptor binding levels in the two different ages. The results in amygdala, nucleus accumbens and striatum suggest a different "tonic" regulation on the stress axis in adolescent handled animals, and also a reduced reward and habit formation function, which may lead to reduced susceptibility to addiction. In conclusion, in the present study we have shown that neonatal handling, an early-life experience model, leads to changes in CB1 receptor expression in a region- and age-specific manner. This effect of handling could be one of the factors underlying the increased blain plasticity of neonatally handled animals, which is manifested both at the cellular and at the behavioural/systemic level.

Le présent mémoire s’inscrit dans un projet, financé par le CRSH, visant l’étude des conditions de vie dans l’enfance et la survie aux grands âges L’augmentation de la longévité et de la mortalité observée dans les pays industrialisés depuis plus d’un siècle ont mené à l’émergence d’un courant de recherche visant à identifier les causes de ces progrès. Il a été soulevé que les conditions de vie dans l’enfance pourraient y jouer un rôle. L’objectif de ce mémoire est donc de mettre en lumière les déterminants qui sont en cause en étudiant la mortalité au-delà de 40 ans d’une population urbaine canadienne-française en phase d’industrialisation, soit, celle de la ville de Québec au début du 20ème siècle. Plus spécifiquement, une analyse descriptive de la population étudiée sera effectuée et suivra une analyse statistique à l’aide de modèles de risques proportionnels de Cox qui prendront en compte différentes facettes des conditions de vie. Au coeur de ce mémoire a été l’élaboration d’une base de données se basant sur le Canadian Families Project et créée à partir du recensement canadien de 1901. Cette dernière nous a permis de dresser un portrait des conditions de vie dans l’enfance, telles qu’elles étaient au tournant du 20ème siècle, de la population étudiée. Nous avons complété cette base de données en recueillant des informations sur les mariages à l’aide des fichiers de du projet BALSAC ainsi que les âges au décès des individus de l’échantillon en consultant les fiches de l’État civil. Nous avons pu mettre en lumière que les individus ayant passé leur enfance dans un ménage de type complexe affichent une mortalité moins élevée (de près de 35%) que pour les structures familiales simples. De plus, les individus qui ont grandi dans un ménage dont le chef était bilingue ou occupait un emploi qualifié ont des risques de mortalité inférieurs de près du tiers par rapport aux autres. Nous avons aussi trouvé que les résidents de la Basse-Ville courraient un risque de mortalité jusqu’à 50% plus élevé que celui de ceux provenant d’autres districts de la ville. / This thesis is part of a project, financed by the CRSH, aiming at the study of early-life conditions and survival later in life. The increase in longevity in industrialized countries over the last century has lead to emergence of a research trend seeking to identify the causes of this progress. It has been remarked that the life conditions during childhood may have played a role in this progress. The goal of this thesis is to put forward the determining factors that are in cause by studying the mortality beyond the age of 40 of the population of a French Canadian city going through an industrialization phase, i.e. Quebec City at the beginning of the twentieth century. More specifically, a descriptive analysis of the population studied will be done and will follow a statistical analysis with the help of Cox proportional hazard models that will take the different aspects of life conditions into account. At the heart of this thesis is the elaboration of a database based on the Canadian Families Project, created from the 1901 Canadian census. The latter has allowed us to draw a portrait of the living conditions during childhood of the studied population, as they were at the turn of the 20th century. We collected information from the BALSAC project files for weddings and from files of the civil status for the age at death of sampled individuals to complement the database. We were able to see that individuals who spent their childhood within a complex type of household had lower risk of mortality (nearly 35% lower) than those who grew up in simple family structures. Moreover, children who lived in a household whose head was bilingual or skilled have mortality risk reduced by almost a third. We also found that residents of the Basse-Ville have higher risk, up to 50%, than residents from other districts of the city.

Complex biogenic habitats created by large canopy-forming macroalgae on intertidal and shallow subtidal rocky reefs worldwide are increasingly affected by degraded environmental conditions at local scales and global climate-driven changes. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying the impacts of complex suites of anthropogenic stressors on algal forests is essential for the conservation and restoration of these habitats and of their ecological, economic and social values. This thesis tests physical and biological mechanisms underlying the impacts of different forms of natural and human-related disturbance on macroalgal assemblages dominated by fucoid canopies along the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand. A field removal experiment was initially set up to test assemblage responses to mechanical perturbations of increasing severity, simulating the impacts of disturbance agents affecting intertidal habitats such as storms and human trampling. Different combinations of assemblage components (i.e., canopy, mid-canopy and basal layer) were selectively removed, from the thinning of the canopy to the destruction of the entire assemblage. The recovery of the canopy-forming fucoids Hormosira banksii and Cystophora torulosa was affected by the intensity of the disturbance. For both species, even a 50% thinning had impacts lasting at least eighteen months, and recovery trajectories were longer following more intense perturbations. Independently of assemblage diversity and composition at different sites and shore heights, the recovery of the canopy relied entirely on the increase in abundance of these dominant fucoids in response to disturbance, indicating that functional redundancy is limited in this system. Minor understory fucoids, which could have provided functional replacement for the dominant habitat formers, had reduced rates of growth or recruitment when the overlying canopy was disturbed. I then used a combination of field and laboratory experiments to test the impacts of physical and biotic stress sources on the dominant fucoids H. banksii and C. torulosa. The large fucoid Durvillaea antarctica was also included in one of the laboratory investigations. I assessed how altered physical and biotic conditions affect these important habitat formers, both separately and in combination. Physical stressors included increased sedimentation, nutrient enrichment and warmer water temperatures. Biotic stress originated from interspecific competition with turfs of articulated coralline algae and ephemeral, fast-growing green and brown algae. Sediment deposition severely reduced the survival and growth of recently settled H. banksii, C. torulosa and D. antarctica germlings in laboratory experiments. In the field, the recruitment of H. banksii on unoccupied substrates was significantly higher than in treatments in which sediments or mats of turf-forming coralline algae covered the substrate. This shows that sediment deposition and space pre-emption by algal turfs can synergistically affect the development of fucoid beds. Further impacts of sediment accumulation in the benthic environment were investigated using in situ and laboratory photorespirometry techniques to assess the contribution of coralline algae to assemblage net primary productivity (NPP), both in the presence and absence of sediment. The NPP of articulated corallines was reduced by sediment. Sediment accumulation among the thalli limited the access of the corallines to the light and induced photoinhibitive mechanisms. In the absence of sediment, however, coralline algae enhanced the NPP of assemblages with a fucoid canopy, showing the importance of synergistic interactions among the components of multi-layered assemblages in optimizing light use. Nutrient enrichment had a less pervasive influence on the dominant fucoids H. banksii and C. torulosa than sedimentation. In laboratory experiments, nutrients stimulated the growth of H. banksii and C. torulosa germlings. However, negative impacts of high nutrient levels were observed for the early life stages of D. antarctica. The abundance of opportunistic, fast-growing algae rapidly increased in response to nutrient enrichment both in the laboratory and in the field. Impacts of ephemeral species on fucoid early life stages were only evident in laboratory contexts, where green algae of the genus Ulva impaired both the settlement of H. banksii zygotes and the growth of its germlings. Fucoid recruitment in the field was not affected by increased covers of ephemeral algae caused by enhanced nutrient regimes, indicating that H. banksii and C. torulosa may be resistant to short-term (one year) nutrient pollution. In the laboratory, increased temperatures within the range predicted for the end of the 21st century caused increased mortality in the H. banksii, C. torulosa and D. antarctica germlings. In a separate experiment, a combination of warmer water temperatures and nutrient enrichment enhanced the growth of ephemeral green algae. These results suggest that opposite responses to altered climate conditions may contribute to shifts from complex biogenic habitats dominated by macroalgal canopies to simplified systems monopolized by a limited number of stress-tolerant species. This research contributes to a clearer mechanistic understanding of biotic and physical mechanisms shaping the structure of coastal marine hard bottom communities under increasingly stressful conditions worldwide. These findings may provide insights for other studies investigating the complex mosaic of challenges facing marine coastal ecosystems.

Affective disorders represent one of the greatest global burdens of disease. Work in patients with affective disorders demonstrates that serotonin (5-HT) signaling within the prefrontal cortex, particularly at the level of the 5-HT receptors, plays an integral role in both the pathology and treatment of these diseases. Surprisingly, the characterization of the prefrontal 5-HT receptors under both healthy and pathological conditions remains incomplete. The technique of whole cell electrophysiological recording provides an unparalleled tool for investigating the functional effects of these 5-HT receptors on neurons in acute prefrontal cortical slices. The objectives of my thesis were to delve deeper into the 5-HT receptor subtypes that modulate the prefrontal cortex in the healthy control rodents and to examine how this modulation was disrupted in a rodent model of affective disorders. In work from healthy control rodents, I examined two prefrontal 5-HT receptor-mediated currents. I show for the first time the presence of the 5-HT1A receptor during the early postnatal period, a critical developmental window during which this receptor programs adult anxiety behaviors. In adulthood, I characterized an inhibitory current mediated by the 5-ht5A receptor; findings that will permit the classification of this receptor within the 5-HT receptor family. Collectively, this investigation of functional early 5-HT1A receptors and adult 5-ht5A receptors offers a novel conceptual framework for understanding 5-HT receptor modulation of the healthy prefrontal cortex. To model vulnerability to affective disorder in the rodent, I used the early stress of maternal separation. In early stress rodents, I observed a marked increase in 5-HT1A receptor currents during the early postnatal period, the critical time window for the programming of anxiety. By comparison, in adulthood I found that rodents exposed to early stress displayed increased 5-HT2A receptor currents. These findings provide novel insight into the developmental and long-lasting pathology underlying early stress, indicating that the early prefrontal 5-HT1A receptor and adult prefrontal 5-HT2A receptors as a potential therapeutic target in treatment of affective disorders At a fundamental level, the findings provided herein offer critical insight into the cellular mechanisms underlying affective disorders, one of the most debilitating and costly diseases worldwide.

L’ocytocine est un petit peptide synthétisé par des neurones de l’hypothalamus. Il est connu pour ses rôles dans la reproduction et les interactions sociales, en particulier dans les interactions mère-enfants, mais possède également un effet analgésique endogène. Au cours de cette thèse, j’ai cherché à comprendre plus en détail les circuits qui sous-tendent son effet analgésique. Dans un second temps j’ai cherché à déterminer si une séparation maternelle précoce, qui affecte les interactions mère-enfants, perturbe les réponses à la douleur et l’analgésie ocytocinergique chez la descendance. Ces travaux ont permis d’identifier un groupe de neurones ocytocinergiques dans l’hypothalamus, capables de diminuer la douleur par une double action. D’une part ils inhibent directement la transmission de l’information nociceptive dans la moelle épinière, et d’autre part contrôlent l’activité de neurones à ocytocine libérant la molécule dans la circulation sanguine. Notre étude sur la séparation maternelle démontre qu’elle induit une hypersensibilité à la douleur à l’âge adulte et un dysfonctionnement de l’analgésie endogène ocytocinergique. / Oxytocin is a small peptide synthesized in hypothalamic neurons. She is well known for its roles in reproduction and social interactions, especially in mother-infant interactions, but also displays analgesic effects. During this thesis, I tried to get a better understanding of the circuits underlying OT analgesia. Then, I tried to determine if neonatal maternal separation, affecting mother-infant interactions, alters adult pain responses and oxytocin analgesia. This work allowed to identify a subgroup of oxytocinergic neurons in the hypothalamus, able to decrease pain through a dual action. They directly inhibit nociceptive transmission in the spinal cord and control the activity of another population of oxytocinergic neurons releasing the peptide in the bloodstream. Our work on maternal separation shows that it induces nociceptive hypersensitivity at adulthood, and a dysfunction in oxytocin analgesia.