Syfte: Syftet med studien är att kartlägga hur influencers argumenterar för samhällsviktiga frågor, personliga frågor samt för produkter/varumärken de marknadsför på sociala medier. Den retoriska modellen, och de teoretiska modellerna parasociala relationer och Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) ska tillämpas för att identifiera om retoriska argumenteringar har betydelse i skapandet av relationer. Studien syftar också till att få en förståelse till varför följare lyssnar på influencers köpråd/rekommendationer. Metod: Studien använder sig av en kvalitativ metod i form av en innehållsanalys och fokusgruppsintervjuer. Resultat: Utifrån innehållsanalysen framgår det att de retoriska argumenten ethos, pathos, och logos är ofta förekommande i influencers argumentering genom sociala medier. Mest förekommande var argumentet pathos som bestod av minst 50 % av inläggen för betalt samarbete. Fokusgrupperna visar att den yngre generationen är mer motiverade att följa och agera efter influencers rekommendationer än den äldre generationen. Slutsats: Studien visar att influencers använder sig frekvent av retoriska argumenteringar för att framföra ett meddelande på sociala medier. Inläggen som influencers producerar möjliggör skapandet av parasociala relationer som i sin tur leder till köpintentioner. De retoriska argumenteringar influencers använder sig av leder även till att följare exempelvis vill agera efter deras rekommendationer/köpråd. Det är även genom retoriska argumenteringar som influencers skapar parasociala relationer till deras följare. Studien tyder även på att det finns skillnader mellan den yngre och äldre generationen, där de yngre har lättare att ingå i parasociala relationer med influencers. / Purpose: The purpose of the study is to map how influencers argue for socially important issues, personal issues and for products / brands they market on social media. The rhetorical models, and the theoretical models parasocial relations and the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) will be applied to identify whether rhetorical arguments are important in the creation of relations. The study also aims to gain an understanding of why followers listen to influencers' recommendations. Method: The study uses a qualitative method in the form of a content analysis and focus group interviews. Findings: Based on the content analysis, it appears that the rhetorical arguments ethos, pathos, and logos are often used in influencers' arguments through social media. The most common argument was pathos, which consisted of at least 50% of the posts for paid collaborations. The focus groups show that the younger generation is more motivated to follow and act on influencers' recommendations than the older generation. Conclusion: The study shows that influencers frequently use rhetorical arguments to convey a message on social media.The posts that influencers produce enable the creation of parasocial relationships which in turn leads to purchase intentions. The rhetorical arguments influencers use also lead to followers, wanting to act on their recommendations / buying advice. It is also through rhetorical arguments that influencers create parasocial relationships with their followers. The study also indicates that there are differences between the younger and the older generation, where the younger ones find it easier to enter into parasocial relationships with influencers.(This thesis is written in Swedish)

Argumentieren ist zentraler Bestandteil naturwissenschaftlicher Erkenntnisgewinnung. Dennoch gibt es bisher nur wenige Arbeiten, die untersuchen, wie Lernende auf der Grundlage selbstständig durchgeführter Experimente für bzw. gegen eine eigene Hypothese argumentieren. Vor diesem Hintergrund untersucht diese Arbeit, welchen Einfluss personale Faktoren (u. a. das Fachwissen und das situationale Interesse) und die Art der Lernumgebung (Realexperiment vs. Computersimulation) darauf nehmen, welche Typen von Argumenten verwendet werden. Ferner wird in dieser Arbeit untersucht, inwiefern die Verwendung dieser Argumentkategorien den Lernerfolg beeinflusst. Auf der Basis von Interviewdaten konnten zunächst für die vorgebrachten Argumente beim Wechseln bzw. Beibehalten eigener Hypothesen beim Experimentieren zehn Kategorien identifiziert werden (u. a. „Intuition“, „Expertenwissen“, „Messunsicherheiten“ sowie „Daten als Evidenz“). Zur quantitativen Erfassung wurde dann für die vier o. g. Argumentkategorien ein Likert-skaliertes Instrument entwickelt. Die aufgeführten Fragestellungen wurden schließlich in einer randomisierten Studie mit 938 Schülerinnen und Schülern untersucht. Bei der Untersuchung des Einflusses personaler Faktoren zeigt sich u. a., dass Lernende in einer Argumentation umso eher Daten als Evidenz heranziehen, je höher das fachliche Vorwissen ist. Die Verwendung dieser Argumentkategorie erhöht wiederum die Wahrscheinlichkeit dafür, dass Lernende nach dem Experimentieren eine fachlich adäquate Hypothese aufstellen. Dies impliziert, dass der Umgang mit experimentellen Daten und Beobachtungen im Physikunterricht stärker als bisher berücksichtigt werden muss, z. B. durch eine explizitere Förderung von Fähigkeiten zum Umgang mit experimentellen Daten. Bis auf einen gut erklärbaren Unterschied können grundlegende Unterschiede beim Experimentieren zwischen Gruppen, die mit einem Real- bzw. Computerexperiment gearbeitet haben, nicht belegt werden. / Argumentation from data and evidence evaluation is widely seen as a scientific core practice. One approach to engage students in a meaningful argumentation practice is to provide lab work situations where they can construct hypotheses on the basis of their own prior knowledge and consequently evaluate these hypotheses in light of self-collected data. However, until recently, only little research has analyzed students' argumentation from data. Against this backdrop this research seeks to identify: a) the influences of personal factors (such as content knowledge and situational interest); b) the type of learning environment as a situational factor (real vs. virtual experiment) on the use of different categories of argument (such as Intuition, Appeal to Authority, Measurement Uncertainties (explicit) and Data as Evidence); c) the influence of argumentation on learning outcomes through experimentation in school labs. First, an interview-study was used to identify the different types of arguments used by students. Analyses focused on the nature of justification in argument and revealed ten different categories students use while arguing for or against hypotheses. As a next step, four out of ten categories were operationalized by means of a Likert-scaled instrument to assess the use of different types of argument in a valid and reliable manner. The findings from a randomized study among 938 secondary school students in a lab work setting indicate, among others, that content knowledge is positively related to the use of data as evidence. Again, the use of data as evidence increases the probability of stating a correct hypothesis after conducting the experiment. This implies that the ability to deal with data and measurement uncertainties should be better fostered in physics classes. Besides one explicable difference, no evidence was found, which supports the hypothesis that students' argumentation would differ while working with hands-on materials vs. computer simulations.

Covid-19-pandemin och åtföljande restriktioner gjorde det svårt för konsumenter att integrera både online och offline kanaler. Syftet med studien är att få en förståelse över hur pandemin har förändrat konsumenters kanalstrategier i detaljhandeln, och vilka kanaler konsumenter börjat föredra att använda sig av vid shopping. För att studera detta har vi tillämpats oss av Elaboration likelihood model för att med hjälp av insamlad empiri förstå hur konsumenters informationsbearbetning i online och offline kanaler formar deras strategier att kombinera kanaler. Datamaterialet består av en kvalitativ metod i form av enskilda intervjuer och fokusgrupper, med 26 respondenter sammanlagt. I samband med pandemin visar resultatet på att respondenterna övergick från att utföra spontana till mer planerade inköp. Den största anledning till denna förändring är att shopping i fysiska butiker inte var lika roligt på grund av de nya restriktionerna som bland annat gjorde så att provrummen stängdes ned. Resultatet visar även på att informationsbearbetningen i online och offline kanaler är bidragande i skapandet av respondenternas kanalstrategier. Respondenterna hade olika sätt att behandla informationen som presenterats för dem, och utformade därifrån kanalstrategier. Sammanfattningsvis kan vi konstatera att beroende på hur respondenten behandlar informationen som presenterats, leder detta i sin tur till skapandet av kanalstrategier. Detta förklarar varför respondenterna som behandlade informationen via ELM’s centrala eller perifera kanal hade olika kanalstrategier. / The Covid-19 pandemic and associated restrictions made it difficult for consumers to integrate both online and offline channels. The purpose of the study is to gain an understanding of how the pandemic has changed consumers' channel strategies in retail, and which channels consumers have begun to prefer to use when shopping. To study this, we have applied the Elaboration likelihood model to use collected empirical data to understand how consumers' information processing in online and offline channels shapes their strategies for combining channels. The data material consists of a qualitative method in the form of individual interviews and focus groups, with a total of 26 respondents. In connection with the pandemic, the results show that the respondents switched from making spontaneous to more planned purchases. The main reason for this change is that shopping in physical stores was not as fun due to the new restrictions that, among other things, caused the rehearsal rooms to be closed. The results also show that information processing in online and offline channels contributes to the creation of respondents' channel strategies. The respondents had different ways of processing the information presented to them, and from there devised channel strategies. In summary, we can state that depending on how the respondent processes the information presented, this in turn leads to the creation of channel strategies. This explains why the respondents who processed the information via ELM's central or peripheral channel had different channel strategies.

Master of Science / Department of Psychology / Richard J. Harris / Previous research has indicated that many factors influence the likelihood of using the central or peripheral routes of processing during exposure to a persuasive message, including involvement in the message. Previous research has generally focused on response involvement, which is based on outcome, while the focus of the present study is involvement based on personal investment. In the present study, 229 undergraduates were assessed on their trait empathy toward animals, and attitudes toward animals. They read a strong or weak persuasive message presented by either an attractive or less attractive writer. This design replicated previous findings by Bae (2008) on empathy and attitude change, and extended them by examining them experimentally, with a focus on issue-based involvement, which relies on moral or ego involvement. Participants were tested on several distinct DVs designed to indicate their change in attitude and behavior. Results varied for each DV, with source attractiveness predicting willingness to wear a button and display a bumper sticker, but with trait empathy predicting willingness to adopt a pet and vote to support a petition. The results imply that participants relied on different routes of processing depending on the DV, and that the role of emotion in issue involvement may inform advertisers in ways to effectively increase the likelihood of paying attention to a message.

The primary objective of this study was to apply the Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasive communication to consumers' perceptions of food additive labelling. The model was used to explain how consumer information processing influences consumers' decision-making and consequent purchasing behaviour with regard to food products that contain food additives. To date, few studies have explained consumers' perceptions, viewpoints and understanding of additive labelling, or of their related purchasing behaviour. However, the increased marketing of processed foods containing additives and the concern expressed by consumers regarding the risks of additives call for the development of a theoretical basis for research into these issues. There is currently a lack of such data in South Africa. This study was conducted from a phenomenological qualitative approach with a descriptive exploratory nature. Eight focus group sessions with 39 food additive label readers were held in the Vanderbijlpark-Vereeniging area. A content analysis of the focus group discussions resulted in the categorising of concepts, and 33 subtle underlying themes were identified. The main findings of the study were that the participants' general perceptions suggested that food additives can be defined as unnatural chemical substances that are added to food and that hold some benefits and/or risks to the consumer. The participants' use of food additive information was influenced by the situational factors associated with each individual participant. Moreover, the participants were more aware of tartrazine, MSG and aspartame than of any other food additive. Participants were also confronted with various blocking mechanisms when searching for and selecting food products containing additives. These included a lack of standardisation of terminology, illegible ingredient listing, a lack of food control and regulation, information overload, incomprehensible information, manufacturers' dishonesty, time constraints and incorrect, untrustworthy, insufficient information. On the other hand, participants used various coping or risk-reducing strategies to reduce their concerns. In order to interpret the results, the Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasive communication was adapted and applied to food additive labels. The adapted model illustrates how the consumers' perceptions of additive labels and their search for additional information influence their purchasing behaviour to varying extents. It is recommended that more attention be given to consumer education with regard to additive-related terminology used on food labels and that the results be put to use in the current revision of labelling regulations. Marketers and retailers could use the information to better understand the behaviour of consumers who read food additive labels. The value of this study was to show that consumers' prior perceptions of food additives are an important determinant of their purchasing behaviour, / Thesis (Ph.D. (Consumer Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Two studies were conducted to investigate how the use of different types of language affects attitudes. Participants scrutinized arguments supporting a hypothetical toothpaste that differed in terms of argument strength (strong versus weak) and linguistic abstractness (abstract versus concrete) and subsequently evaluated the toothpaste. In addition, half of the participants in the second study were subjected to a cognitive load manipulation (i.e., rehearsing a ten-digit number) in order to limit their level of cognitive elaboration. Results indicated that strong arguments and those containing concrete descriptions led to more positive attitudes about the toothpaste, whereas weak messages comprised of abstract terms gave rise to the least favorable evaluations. These findings represent the first demonstration of the effect of language type on attitudes and suggest that future research into the functions of differential linguistic abstractness in a persuasive context will broaden our understanding of attitude change.

Master of Science - Agricultural Education and Communication / Department of Communications and Agricultural Education / Lauri M. Baker / Kansas and Oklahoma were in the top five cattle producing states in the United States. Beef cattle producers across Kansas and Oklahoma had access to best management practices (BMPs) for proper grazing land management, but were still underutilizing these practices. This study sought to understand why producers did not adopt grazing BMPs suggested by Extension professionals and to identify opportunities to improve communication and adoption. Under the postulates of elaboration likelihood model (ELM), if BMPs were communicated to producers in a way that persuaded them to adopt BMPs, the resiliency of the entire beef cattle grazing system, would increase. This study was guided by community-based social marketing (CBSM) and elaboration likelihood model (ELM). Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with 43 producers in north central Oklahoma and south central Kansas during the summer of 2015. Initial participants were recruited using a purposive sampling method through Extension contacts with a snowball sample after initial participants were identified. Interviews were transcribed by a professional transcription service and analyzed using Glaser’s constant comparative method. Producers in the study were aware of BMPs like rotational grazing, prescribed burning, and the usage of alternative forages. The major themes discovered in this study include Producers had varying definitions of both rotational grazing and cover crops; Producers used each other, Extension and university materials and personnel as information sources; Practices producers used were determined by visual observations and past experiences. Barriers and social constrains to the adoption of BMPs that were discovered included: water availability and quality, land leases, time and labor, land lords, generational gaps, and a lack of skilled employees. Producers saw the benefits of burning practices and rotational grazing. Another major theme was drought tested the resiliency of producer’s operations. This study offers several recommendations for Extension professionals and research. The way that Extension agents were communicating BMPs should be researched and analyzed. The implementation of CBSM and ELM by Extension professionals could increase the adoption of BMPs in grazing systems. A major implication of this study was the need for Extension to more openly communicate with producers rather than just exchange information.

Studier utförda i icke digitaliserade kontexter visar att konsumenter överväger marknadsföring av högengagemangsprodukter kognitivt, och att köpintention av dessa produkter påverkas av argumentens kvalitet. Vidare visas att konsumenter vid lågengagemangsprodukter överväger marknadsföring emotionellt, och att köpintention av produkter som förknippas med lågt engagemang därför påverkas av källans trovärdighet. Studier utförda på sociala medier visar däremot att konsumenters köpintentioner påverkas av emotionella stimuli, oavsett produkttyp. Det visar följaktligen att vad som påverkar konsumenters köpintentioner av olika produkter bör skilja sig mellan icke digitaliserade kontexter och sociala medier. I denna studie undersöks därför vad som påverkar köpintention av dessa produkttyper genom marknadsföring på sociala medier, mer specifikt via influencer marketing. Studien har genom 8 semistrukturerade intervjuer undersökt vilka karaktärsdrag hos en influencer samt vilka dimensioner i dennes inlägg som påverkar konsumenters köpintentioner av låg- respektive högengagemangsprodukter när dessa marknadsförs på Instagram. Det visades att vad som främst påverkar köpintention av båda produkttyperna är dimensioner i bilden; kvalitet, miljö, sammanhang och genuinitet. Vidare är tillgänglighet en dimension i texten som påverkar konsumenternas köpintention av båda produkttyperna, det vill säga att företaget ska finnas taggat i inlägget och därmed göra det enkelt för konsumenten att ta sig vidare för eventuell informationssökning eller köp. Övriga dimensioner och karaktärsdrag skiljer sig mellan produkttyperna. Gällande lågengagemangsprodukter har inga fler dimensioner i inlägget någon betydelse och inte heller vilken influencer som marknadsför produkten. Däremot vid högengagemangsprodukter, bör influencern besitta karaktärsdragen trovärdighet, som beskrivs genom matchning och kompetens, samt attraktivitet. Texten bör även innehålla personlig information från influencern gällande dennes användning av produkten. Utöver karaktärsdrag och dimensioner visades konsumentens inställning till produkten påverka köpintentioner av båda produkttyperna. Inställningen till produkten innebär; egen preferens, behov och varumärke. Slutligen kan utläsas att det krävs mer av en influencer och dennes inlägg för att påverka konsumenter till köpintention vid marknadsföring av högengagemangsprodukter, då fler dimensioner och karaktärsdrag visades viktiga vid marknadsföring av denna produkttyp

Food allergies within the United States and Europe have become exceedingly prevalent in children, adolescents, and adults. In the United States alone, over 12 million people have been diagnosed with at least one food allergy. If the allergen is accidentally consumed, the food allergy sufferer may suffer a life-threatening condition known as anaphylaxis. More than 200 U.S. food allergic consumers die annually as a result of anaphylaxis due to ingestion of food allergens. To safely manage food allergies, food allergy sufferers and stakeholders (such as caregivers) require clear and complete ingredient information to avoid certain allergens in packaged food products. Despite U.S. legislative mandates designed to assist the food allergic consumers and stakeholders to make safe food selection choices, food allergy labeling on consumer packaged food products remains unclear. To properly manage food allergy, it is imperative that food allergy stakeholders have access to clear and unambiguous food allergen ingredients located on the food product labels. The purpose of this research was to capture the impact of current United States food allergen labeling guidelines on U.S. food allergy stakeholders. With the elaboration likelihood framework, this research aimed to better understand how the congruence of allergen ingredient information on the Product Label Claim on the front of the package and Nutrition Facts Panel information on the back of the package affected food allergic consumers and stakeholders in evaluation of product packaging allergen information. A total of 223 food allergy stakeholders were administered four surveys depicting food allergen labeling variations found on U.S. food product labels. Seventeen hypotheses were formulated and analyzed with ANCOVA and t tests to measure the impact of congruence and elaboration of the food allergen messages on the food product labels, with a specific focus on purchase intention. Findings indicated that food allergy stakeholders had difficulties using and understanding existing food allergen labels under current U.S. food allergen labeling guidelines. The results also showed confusion among U.S. food allergic stakeholders with safe food selection choices when the label claims did not align with the actual allergen ingredient information. Research, public policy, and managerial implications were thoroughly discussed.

Mental illness is a widespread public health concern. Stigma is a known barrier to recovery, and individuals often avoid seeking treatment because of it. The purpose of my research was to understand how individuals process peer-created, mental illness messages on social media, and to what extent these messages reduce stigma. I conducted two experiments based on the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) to examine attitudes related to negative beliefs about mental illness and preferred social distance from mentally ill individuals. Argument quality and amount of elaboration influenced empathetic responses to a message. Empathy was directly associated with a decrease in stigmatized beliefs about mental illness. Individuals who perceived that the message sharer was a close, trusted friend were more likely to indicate that the original message creator was more credible. Original message creators who disclosed having a mental illness were also perceived as more credible than creators who did not disclose having a mental illness. In addition, participants who perceived that the message sharer positively endorsed the message had less stigmatized beliefs about mental illness than participants who perceived negative endorsements. Results of this project suggest that traditional ELM variables, such as elaboration and argument quality, influence the processing and outcomes of viewing social media messages about mental illness. Several new media characteristics, such as who shares the message online and comments they attach to the message, also influence how users think about the message and influence processing outcomes.