Asymmetric interactions and relationships between celebrities and followers, referred to as Parasocial Interactions (PSI) and Parasocial Relationships (PSR), respectively, have been extensively studied within the context of TV, radio and print media. However, within the Social Media (SM) ecosystem - where follower engagement and experience flow seamlessly across multiple SM tools/platforms - the nature of PSI and PSR is changing and research within this context is still nascent. Using Identity Theory and Motivational Theory, this dissertation analyses the impact active/passive engagement and compulsive use of the SM ecosystem can have in the formation of PSI and PSR. Specifically, the goal of this research is to understand how different types of engagement (passive and active) can influence parasocial relationships (friendship and love) through the mediation of cognitive and behavioural parasocial interactions. A model is proposed and validated with 294 respondents. The findings show that passive engagement in the SM ecosystem does not impact PSI/PSR while active engagement significantly impacts PSI and the consequent PSR formation. Compulsive use of the SM ecosystem strongly attenuates the relationships between PSI and PSR. Contributions and implications for both theory and practice are discussed. / Thesis / Doctor of Business Administration (DBA)

Bakgrund: Artificiella influencers är ett nytt fenomen inom marknadsföringsstrategininfluencer marketing. En artificiell influencer är en datorskapad karaktär som genom enfiktiv berättelse skapar kontakt med sina följare. Det saknas idag forskning kringfenomenet och dess påverkan på marknadsföring, varför denna studie ämnar attundersöka fenomenet och bidra med en grundförståelse för artificiella influencers ochdess påverkan på marknadsföring. Syfte: Studien syftar till att undersöka fenomenet artificiella influencers. Metod: Studien är av kvalitativ karaktär, med ett konstruktionistiskt ochinterpretativistiskt utgångspunkt. Studiens ansats är iterativ och empirin har samlats inmed en netnografisk metodik. Det empiriska materialet har analyserats genom entematisk analysmetod. Slutsats: Studien visar att artificiella influencers använder sig av element frånmarknadsföringsstrategin storytelling i olika grad för att lyckas skapa kärnan i influencermarketing, identifikation och trovärdighet, och därmed influera följarna. Genom attframmana en känsla av identifierbarhet tenderar även följarna till de artificiellainfluencerna att utveckla en parasocial relation till karaktärerna. Vidare uttrycker följarnabeundran såväl som förvirring kring karaktärernas digitala framställande. / Background: Artificial influencers is a new phenomenon in the marketing strategy ofinfluencer marketing. An artificial influencer is a computer-generated character, whothrough a fictional story creates contact with the followers. There is currently no researchon the phenomenon and its impact on marketing. Therefore, this study aims to investigatethe phenomenon and contribute with basic understanding of artificial influencers and itsimpact on marketing. Purpose: The study aims to investigate the phenomenon of artificial influencers. Methodology: This study is of qualitative nature, with a constructionist and interpretiviststarting point. The approach of the study is iterative and the data has been collectedthrough a netnography methodology. The collected data has been analyzed by a thematicanalysis method. Conclusion: The result of this study discloses that elements from the marketing strategystorytelling is uesd, to varying degrees, by the artificial influencers with intention toreenact the core strengt in influencer marketing: idetification and trustworthiness, whichin turn enables an ability to influence the followers. By generating a sense of homophily,the followers tend to develop a parasocial relationship with the characters. In addition,the followers are also expressing admiration to the characters, as well as confusion aboutthe digital creation of the

Syfte: Syftet med studien är att kartlägga hur influencers argumenterar för samhällsviktiga frågor, personliga frågor samt för produkter/varumärken de marknadsför på sociala medier. Den retoriska modellen, och de teoretiska modellerna parasociala relationer och Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) ska tillämpas för att identifiera om retoriska argumenteringar har betydelse i skapandet av relationer. Studien syftar också till att få en förståelse till varför följare lyssnar på influencers köpråd/rekommendationer. Metod: Studien använder sig av en kvalitativ metod i form av en innehållsanalys och fokusgruppsintervjuer. Resultat: Utifrån innehållsanalysen framgår det att de retoriska argumenten ethos, pathos, och logos är ofta förekommande i influencers argumentering genom sociala medier. Mest förekommande var argumentet pathos som bestod av minst 50 % av inläggen för betalt samarbete. Fokusgrupperna visar att den yngre generationen är mer motiverade att följa och agera efter influencers rekommendationer än den äldre generationen. Slutsats: Studien visar att influencers använder sig frekvent av retoriska argumenteringar för att framföra ett meddelande på sociala medier. Inläggen som influencers producerar möjliggör skapandet av parasociala relationer som i sin tur leder till köpintentioner. De retoriska argumenteringar influencers använder sig av leder även till att följare exempelvis vill agera efter deras rekommendationer/köpråd. Det är även genom retoriska argumenteringar som influencers skapar parasociala relationer till deras följare. Studien tyder även på att det finns skillnader mellan den yngre och äldre generationen, där de yngre har lättare att ingå i parasociala relationer med influencers. / Purpose: The purpose of the study is to map how influencers argue for socially important issues, personal issues and for products / brands they market on social media. The rhetorical models, and the theoretical models parasocial relations and the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) will be applied to identify whether rhetorical arguments are important in the creation of relations. The study also aims to gain an understanding of why followers listen to influencers' recommendations. Method: The study uses a qualitative method in the form of a content analysis and focus group interviews. Findings: Based on the content analysis, it appears that the rhetorical arguments ethos, pathos, and logos are often used in influencers' arguments through social media. The most common argument was pathos, which consisted of at least 50% of the posts for paid collaborations. The focus groups show that the younger generation is more motivated to follow and act on influencers' recommendations than the older generation. Conclusion: The study shows that influencers frequently use rhetorical arguments to convey a message on social media.The posts that influencers produce enable the creation of parasocial relationships which in turn leads to purchase intentions. The rhetorical arguments influencers use also lead to followers, wanting to act on their recommendations / buying advice. It is also through rhetorical arguments that influencers create parasocial relationships with their followers. The study also indicates that there are differences between the younger and the older generation, where the younger ones find it easier to enter into parasocial relationships with influencers.(This thesis is written in Swedish)

SKAM (”Shame”) is a Norwegian WebTV-series which portrays several youths during their time in high school. Each season addresses a new main character whom treats or is subjected to the feeling of shame. The WebTV-series is unique in its way of not being shown on the traditional television. Instead the series is shown on the digital play-service NRK and SKAM’s own blog. SKAM is transmedia in its way of using social platforms to expand and give new perspectives and stories to the fictional world. For example, the characters obtain authentic Instagram profiles where the viewers can to comment, like or follow the characters. The aim of this study was thus to explore what kind of relationship between fans establish with the fictional characters of SKAM when using transmedia storytelling and why they interact with the phenomenon’s social platforms. The paper also examines in which way SKAM is using transmedia storytelling. The paper is restricted to the platform Instagram and an audience segment called “fans”. This due to the time restriction for the paper to dictated as well as “fans” being the most exploited to extend a fictional world in form of social and cultural activities. The scientific questions attempt to be answered by interviewing a focus group along with carrying out a semiotic image analysis. The results showed that the way SKAM was using the transmedia storytelling in a realistic manner which created a similar form of hyperreality in which parasocial relationship and emotional realism could be formed. This due to Instagram being already an integrated platform in the fans lifestyles. The integrated platform along with the similar hyperreality allows the fans to interact or have the illusion to interact with the characters in a manner which portrays them as social friends. Creating a social bond from the fans to the characters. The characters Instagram profiles portrays in a realistic manner with text and pictures. Their problems, emotions and lifestyle creates a solid connotation to the audience. Making the fans laugh, cry and feel with the characters and wanting to engage in their life. The transmedia storytelling lets the fans engage with the character and letting new perspective of their realistic lives being portrayed. Creating parasocial and emotional realism.

La cancel culture (culture de l'annulation) est depuis quelques années une pratique en ligne populaire, mais controversée. Souvent par milliers, les utilisateurs de réseaux sociaux se rassemblent pour dénoncer publiquement et tenter de minimiser la présence en ligne d’une personnalité publique ou d’une entreprise qu'ils jugent problématique, leur fureur atteignant parfois des sommets impressionnants. Considérant l'impact de cette pratique, nous nous sommes interrogées sur la manière dont elle est perçue et vécue par les personnes qui y participent. Cette étude exploratoire définit d'abord la culture de l'annulation à travers diverses modalités numériques et sociohistoriques, puis analyse les réponses de 19 individus ayant participé à des annulations en ligne. Ces étapes ont permis de découvrir pourquoi les gens décident « d’annuler » et d'explorer les expressions de leurs participations. Finalement, c'est surtout le désir de défendre leurs propres valeurs et les communautés marginalisées qui sont ressorties comme les principales motivations de leurs annulations. / Cancel culture has been a popular, but controversial online practice for the past few years. Often by thousands, social media users gather to publicly denounce and attempt to minimise the online presence of a public figure or company they deem problematic, their fury sometimes attaining impressive heights. Considering the impact of this practice, it is worth asking how it is perceived and experienced by the people concerned. This exploratory study first defines cancel culture through diverse digital and sociohistorical modalities, and then analyses the responses of 19 subjects who have participated in online cancellations. These steps served to discover exactly why people canceled and to explore the expressions of their participations. In the end, it was mostly the desire to stand up for their own values and for marginalized communities that stood out as their main motivators for canceling.

BARTOŠOVÁ, Radka. Parasociální interakce jako vztah mezi mediálními postavami a publikem. Praha, 2016. 67 s. Diplomová práce (Mgr.) Univerzita Karlova, Fakulta sociálních věd, Institut komunikačních studií a žurnalistiky. Katedra mediálních studií. Vedoucí diplomové práce PhDr. Irena Reifová, Ph.D. Abstract This thesis in its theoretical work focuses on the topic parasocial interaction, a specific relationship between fans and celebrities. This fundamental concept is initially set in a broader context. Closer are characterized by celebrities as a publicly-known media figures, and the audience as active recipients of stimulus. There is a concept called. Ordinary stars, as well as focus on issues not only fandom, but also specific terms such as adoration and celebrity stalking celebrities. After outlining the basic theoretical insight is explored basic concept - parasocial relationship. The practical part with respect to the overall theme of the work is carried out using semi-structured interviews with rock stars, fans steady on one side and ordinary fans of the stars on the other. Based on the results and authentic materials are analyzed each category. The work aims to explore how similar concepts related to celebrities, as well as different approaches to media stars.

The purpose of this thesis is to increase the understanding of political party organizations' digital communication by investigating what and how Swedish political youth associations communicate on TikTok. The purpose is realized through a case study of two youth associations, Moderata Ungdomsförbundet (MUF) and Sveriges Socialdemokratiska ungdomsförbund (SSU). The material is collected from a three-month period (November 1, 2023 - January 31, 2024) and the method of the thesis is a combination of quantitative multimodal content analysis and thematic analysis. The theoretical framework provides an understanding of the youth associations' conditions and expectations as an organization, as well as the media logics and norms that they need to adhere to in their communication. In the result it became clear that what the youth associations communicate differs. The most frequently communicated content from SSU consisted of entertainment content, closely followed by political content. MUF mostly focused on political content, but entertainment was also seen. Like previous research, only a small part of the material consisted of personal content. In terms of how the youth associations communicate, there was a similarity in that both associations used a comic style frequently, something that is typical for the platform and thus becomes a way for the youth associations to adopt the current style on TikTok. Similar to previous research, however, there was a lack of interactive tendencies on the part of MUF, which the platform invites. SSU appeared to use the interactive style in about half of the material. Similar to previous studies, we found that both SSU and MUF were diligent users of affordances such as music, audio, text, hashtag and location features. Tendencies we could see in how the youth associations communicated were also that they use platform trends and vernaculars frequently, which differs from previous research. We could thus state that both youth associations showed an adaptation to the platform dynamics.