From a general point of view, the aim of this thesis is to study the appearance and the translation of the metaphor in a context that involves specialized texts. Our purpose is also to examine the historical expression of metaphor within aspects connected to its importance for creation of scientific terms. More precisely, the main object is to explore how metaphors have been used in the field of medical terminology and by which methods they have been translated across the languages. Our approach is based on the definition of conceptual metaphor conceived by Lakoff & Johnson as a product of projections made by the thought (mapping). According to that idea, the metaphor constitutes a universal and essential element of human language and, therefore, also a keystone of the human communication reproduced at every level of social activity. From the cognitive point of view, our approach is also based on the theory of blending proposed by Fauconnier & Turner. It is diachronic and multidisciplinary as well, which means that a particular focus has been placed on the etymology of medical terms, which we have explored in the scientific context where those terms have been created and used. The database in this study is composed of medical terms emerging from scientific texts that we have translated from French to Swedish.  During our analysis, we have explored the occurrence of conceptual metaphor across the source language and the target language (the last one is in fact represented in this thesis by four languages: French, Swedish, English and Polish). The translation methods have been analyzed according to the model of Vinay & Darbelnet.   Our result indicates that conceptual metaphor plays a crucial role in the creation of medical terminology. It indicates also that the conceptualization of a medical phenomenon (expressed by mapping and blending) is almost always preserved in its original form in the target language. This observation implies that cognitive factors are activated during the process of translation. Our conclusion is made within the historical and scientific context, in other words regarding the context where the metaphorical terms have been created and afterwards transferred to other languages.   Key words: conceptual metaphor, metaphorical term, cognitive, etymology, medicine, scientific language, mapping, blending, conceptual shift, linguistic shift, translation, source language, target language.

Dans la conception antique du langage, le signe linguistique doit rendre compte de la réalité qu’il dénote, au contraire de la conception moderne qui repose sur l’arbitraire du signe. L’étymologie consiste alors à donner l’origine des mots en mettant au jour leur motivation (unde et cur uerba rebus imposita sint « d’où et pourquoi les mots ont été appliqués aux choses »). La théorie étymologique des grammairiens latins ne nous est malheureusement parvenue que de manière très lacunaire ; les énoncés étymologiques, en revanche, lieu privilégié de l’expression linguistique du sujet parlant, sont pléthore. Afin d’étudier le sens de l’étymologie antique, longtemps considérée comme « fantaisiste », « fausse » ou « populaire », ce travail s’appuie sur un corpus de 1800 énoncés étymologiques, puisés chez Varron, Cicéron, Aulu-Gelle et Isidore de Séville. La première partie étudie les différentes structures formelles susceptibles d’accueillir les énoncés étymologiques. On y voit ainsi que, malgré la présence de balises métalinguistiques, l’amalgame constant entre l’usage et la mention révèle la fusion qu’opère le sujet parlant entre le signifiant, le signifié et le référent. La seconde partie étudie les facteurs expliquant que le rapprochement entre un lexème explicandum et son étymon semble souvent se faire d’après une ressemblance formelle assez vague : cette hyperlaxité phonétique résulte de l’extension abusive de certains phénomènes observés par le locuteur et théorisés dans un schéma selon lequel les phonèmes peuvent être ajoutés, supprimés, transformés ou déplacés dans le mot. Le mot est ainsi une entité susceptible de variations formelles sans changement du signifié véhiculé. La troisième partie, après avoir rappelé les définitions et les caractéristiques de l’étymologie antique, montre, en en étudiant les processus de dérivation, que cette dernière est avant tout une quête du sens, ce que confirme ensuite l’étude des lexèmes (ré)analysés comme étant constitués de plusieurs éléments sémantiques qui doivent décrire le référent extralinguistique qu’ils dénotent. L’étude se conclut sur l’idée que les énoncés étymologiques latins visent à retrouver l’éponymie d’un nom, une autre manière de « dire le vrai ». / In the ancient idea of language, the linguistic sign has something to do with the object denoted, whereas the modern idea is based on the arbitrariness of the sign. Then, etymology consists in giving the origin of words mainly as the reason why things are called that way (unde et cur uerba rebus imposita sint “whence and why words have been applied to things”). Unfortunately, etymological theory of Latin grammarians came to us with many blanks, but etymological utterances, which are the very place for the linguistic expression of the speaker, are overabundant. In order to study the meaning of ancient etymology, which has long been considered as “fanciful”, “false” or “folk”, this work is based on a corpus of 1,800 etymological utterances taken from Varro, Cicero, Aulus Gellius and Isidore of Seville. The first part looks into the different formal structures which can contain etymological utterances, and we find that in spite of metalinguistic marks, the constant amalgam between usage and mention reveals the confusion of the speaker between signifier, signified and object. The second part explains why the relation between an explicandum and its explicans seems most of the time established from a rather faint formal similarity. This phonetical hyperlaxity comes from the overextension of certain phenomena observed by the speaker and theorized in a pattern according to which phonemes can be added, suppressed, transformed or moved in a word: the word is an entity likely to present variations in its form with no change of the signified. The third part mentions definitions and specificities of ancient etymology, then, shows by the study of derivation processes that etymology is above all a search for signification, which is confirmed by the study of the words (re-)analyzed as formed with several semantical elements. This work comes to the conclusion that Latin etymological speech has a lot to do with eponymy, which is another way to “tell the truth”.

Le berbère est généralement présenté comme un ensemble de dialectes, distincts, avec des frontières plus ou moins hermétiques, qui, le plus souvent, sont étudiés et enseignés de façon clivée voire exclusive. Cette atomisation et cette pratique différenciative occultent l’unité structurale (grammaire et fonds lexical communs) qui forme cette langue commune à laquelle référent tous ces dialectes et n’en donnent qu’une vue fragmentaire.Le domaine de la lexicographie ne déroge pas à cet usage. Chaque dictionnaire est consacré à un seul dialecte avec une graphie et une orthographe propres, et c’est au plan du lexique notamment que le berbère apparaît le plus disparate. Pour aller au-delà du particularisme et appréhender la langue dans sa globalité, nous explorons, à travers le matériau lexical, un panel de dialectes (17) représentant toute la diversité berbère. Nous établissons, par approche comparative, des passerelles inter-dialectales puis rassemblons les éléments communs du lexique recueillis à ce jour. Nous relevons ensuite les changements phonétiques, phonologiques, morphologiques et sémantiques observés dans les unités lexicales afin de mieux comprendre l'évolution du système lexical.Pour ce faire, nous élaborons un E-dictionnaire bilingue (berbère <-> français) qui permet, en tant qu’outil didactique, d’étudier la langue berbère aussi bien dans son unité que dans sa diversité dialectale, et en tant que moyen heuristique de recherche et d'analyse, d’étudier l’étymologie et les faits linguistiques en synchronie et en diachronie.Enfin, nous proposons un outil statistique (le « taux d’homogénéité ») qui mesure la proximité entre les lexiques (ou dialectes). / The Berber language is usually presented as a set of distinct dialects, with more or less hermetic boundaries, which are, most often, studied and taught in a cleaved or even exclusive way.This atomization and this differentiating practice obscure the structural unity (grammar and lexical bases) which founds that common language to which all these dialects refer and give only a fragmentary view of it. The field of lexicography does not depart from this usage. Each dictionary is devoted to a single dialect with a specific spelling, and it is in the lexicon in particular that Berber appears the most disparate.To go beyond particularism and grasp the language as a whole, we explore, through the lexical material, a panel of dialects (17) representing all of Berber diversity. We establish, by comparative approach, inter-dialectal bridges and then gather the common elements of the lexicon collected to date. We then note the phonetic, phonological, morphological and semantic changes observed in lexical units in order to better understand the evolution of the lexical system.To do this, we develop a bilingual E-dictionary (Berber <-> French) which allows - as a didactic tool - for the studying of the Berber language in its unity as well as in its dialectal diversity and - as a heuristic means of research and analysis - for etymology and linguistics facts in synchrony and diachrony.Finally, we introduce a statistical tool (the “homogeneity rate”) that measures the proximity between lexicons (or dialects).

林安. / 論文(碩士) -- 香港中文大學硏究院中國語言及文學學部, 1995. / 參考文獻: leaves 150-157. / Lin An. / Chapter 第一章 --- 有關《說文繫傳》說解形聲字的爭議 --- p.1 / Chapter 第二章 --- 《說文繫傳》中所見徐鍇的聲韻學 --- p.43 / Chapter 第三章 --- 《說文繫傳》以會意訓釋形聲字的例子 --- p.54 / Chapter 第四章 --- 《說文繋傳》中徐鍇對形聲字聲旁功能的見解 --- p.71 / Chapter 第五章 --- 從哲理層面探討徐鍇對形聲會意的去取標準 --- p.103 / Chapter 第六章 --- 結論 --- p.147 / 參攷書目 --- p.150 / 參攷論文目 --- p.156

Cette thèse s’inscrit dans le programme Nouvel Atlas Linguistique de la Corse et Banque de Données Linguistiques Corses et plus particulièrement dans la préparation du quatrième volume consacré à l’agriculture. A partir d’une collecte sur le terrain du lexique et des techniques relatifs à l’oléiculture et à la viticulture, une étude de géolinguistique et de sémantique lexicale est réalisée, à partir du corpus oral comprenant les données de la BDLC et d’enquêtes personnelles. L’examen de la répartition géolinguistique porte sur l’ensemble des variétés dialectales insulaires et est accompagné de commentaires étymologiques et sémantiques de chaque terme correspondant aux thèmes abordés. Pour conduire ce travail, nous nous sommes en particulier appuyés sur les travaux réalisés dans le reste du domaine italo-roman, notamment à travers un dépouillement systématique de dictionnaires étymologiques, historiques et dialectaux ; ce qui permet de donner une dimension comparatiste à notre étude. Cette recherche propose un développement de deux principaux axes : d’une part, l’évaluation de la diversité linguistique et la mise en évidence des rapports avec les aires voisines à la Corse et d’autre part, établir les processus de formation lexicale permettant, outre de retracer le cheminement de la langue, d’observer les caractéristiques des lexiques oléicole et viticole (lexique spécifique vs lexique général ; lexique hérité vs constructions motivées ; les analogies et les différences). / This thesisis part of the Program calledNew Linguistic Atlas of Corsica and LinguisticCorsican Data Bank and more specifically in the preparation of the fourth volume devoted to agriculture. From a field collection of vocabulary and techniques related to the viticulture and winegrowing, a study of geo-linguistic and lexical semantics has been done, from the spoken corpus data includingBLDC and personalsurveys. Examination of the distribution geolinguisticcovers all the islanddialects and isaccompanied by etymological and semanticcommentseachtermcorresponding to the topicdiscussed. To conductthiswork, weparticularlyrelied on the workdone in the rest of the Italian-Roman field -, includingthrough a systematicanalysis of etymologicaldictionaries, historical and dialectological ,whichallows to give a comparative dimension to ourstudy.This research proposes a development of two main areas: first, evaluate the linguisticdiversity and highlightrelationshipswithneighboring areas to Corsica and secondly, establishprocesses for lexical training, also to trace the language, observe the characteristics of the wine and olive lexicons (specificlexicon vs. generallexicon; lexiconinherited vs motivated constructions and the similarities and differences). / S’iscriviistatesi in u prugrammaNouvel Atlas Linguistique de la Corse è Banque de Données Linguistiques Corses è più particularmenti in a priparazioni di u quartuvulumu à prò di l’agricultura. À partasi di unaracoltaannant’àlocu è di u lessicu è di i tecnichi di a vigna è di l’alivu, hèfattuunustudiu di geolinguistica è di semanticalessicale, à partasi di un corpus uralichìcunteni i dati di a BDLC è di inchiestiparsunali. L’esamini di a ripartizionigeoliguisticatratta di l’insemi di i varietàdialettaliisulani è ghjèaccumpagnata di cummentietimulogichi è semantichi d’ugniterminicurrispundanti à i temaammintati. Da stradàistutravaddu, ci simuaiutatipà u più di i travaddirializatiind’è u restu di u duminiuitalorumanzu, in particularicù un spoddusistematicu di dizziunariaetimulogichi, storichi et dialettali ; ciòchìparmetti di dàuna misura cumparatista à u nosciustudiu. Istaricercapruponaunusviluppu di duiiassiprincipali : d’un cantu, a valutazioni di a diversitàlinguistica è a messa in luci di i leiaincù l’aghjivicini à a Corsica et d’un altrucantu, stabiliscia i prucessi di furmazionilessicalichìparmettani, aldilà di ritraccià l’andatura di a lingua, di fidighjà i caratteristichi di i lessichi di l’alivu è di a vigna (lessicuspecificu vs lessicughjinirali ; lessicueridatu vs custruzzionimutivati ; l’analugii è i sfarenzi).Parollichjavi : dialettulugia, geografialinguistica, corsica, aliva, vigna, etimulugia, semantisimu.

Esta dissertação é principalmente um estudo de Etimologia; porém, tem um caráter interdisciplinar, pois nos valhamos de outros estudos linguísticos, como a Morfologia, Fonologia, Linguística Histórica, Semântica, assim como os Estudos de Tradução e de Filologia. O objetivo desta dissertação é analisar a etimologia de alguns elementos lexicais terminados em -ção, que têm cognatas em -sjon no norueguês. Estes elementos são atribuídos aos chamados internacionalismos que, por sua vez, integram o conjunto de empréstimos na língua. Para analisar a etimologia de cada uma das palavras da amostragem, pesquisamos o terminus a quo de cada cognata, tanto do português quanto do norueguês, e também de outras línguas do ramo latino e germânico a fim de traçar o caminho percorrido pelo elemento lexical. Propusemos outros procedimentos para fortalecer a determinação do étimo destes elementos lexicais. A análise deste tipo de elemento lexical é um grande desafio, uma vez que suas cognatas têm grafia e pronúncia muito parecidas. Também nos propusemos a comparar os resultados de nossa pesquisa etimológica com as informações contidas em outros dicionários: no Grande Dicionário Houaiss, para a língua portuguesa, no Bokmål Ordbok, no Nynorsk Ordbok (ambos da Universidade de Bergen), no Norsk Ordbok e no Riskmålsordbok, para a língua norueguesa. Consultamos muitas obras online e corpora para a realização dessa pesquisa. O Google Books e a Biblioteca Nacional da Noruega (Nasjonalbibliothek) foram fundamentais para este fim. / The present dissertation is mainly an etymological study. It has, however, an interdisciplinary character as it is part of other linguistics studies, such as Morphology, Phonology, Historical Linguistics, Semantics, as well as Translation Studies and Philology. The aim of this work is to analyse the etymology of some lexical elements formed by the derivational suffix -ção in the Portuguese language with cognates formed by -sjon in the Norwegian language. These elements are assigned to the internationalisms which, in turn, are part of the set of loanwords in the language. With a view to analysing each of the collected lexical elements of the sampling, we searched for the terminus a quo of each cognate both in the Portuguese language and in the Norwegian language as well as in the other Romance and Germanic languages. From this collection, we succeeded in tracing the path each word took. Furthermore, we proposed other procedures to strengthen the establishment of the etymon of these lexical elements. Such an analysis is a big challenge, since the cognates are very alike both in the spelling and in the pronunciation. We also aimed to compare the results of our research with the etymological information provided by the Dicionário Houaiss da Língua Portuguesa and by some Norwegian dictionaries, such as Bokmål Ordbok, Nynorsk Ordbok (both from the Bergen University), Norsk Ordbok and Riksmålsordbok. We accessed many online works and corpora in order to carry out our research. The Google Books and the National Library of Norway (Nasjonalbibliothek) were fundamental for this end.

Overhead and Behind is an ongoing learning exercise in three parts: Working Conditions, The Refusal of Objects and Disturbing Distribution (forthcoming). Through learning by doing, it unfolds new episodes as an attempt to look at the act of orientating different standpoints. The different parts of Overhead and Behind are examined in series of episodes and an ongoing glossary that expands words connected to the learning exercise. The purpose of Overhead and Behind is (a) to see how structures over-ones-head conceals value systems which conforms working conditions and (b) to practice the method of “being behind”, i.e. to slow-down and counterpose progress. The third aim (c) is to see how these standpoints can be practiced and how this act can insert a new valorization-system.

No abstract available. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal,Durban, 2003.

The overall questions that were provided in the higher degrees proposal have been fairly answered throughout this doctoral dissertation. The following questions have been asked and answered throughout the thesis: What has been identified a's changes from traditional naming practices to Western naming practices? What morphophological comparisons can be made in naming practices? What influenced the cultural and historical background and language of the Shangase clan? Every social group of people has certain norms of behaviour. How does this culturally and structurally affect the system of naming within the Shangase Clan? Since there are different language names, how are these names related, or can any: system of their relationship be found within the Shangase Clan? From which parts of speech are different names (which are nouns) normally derived and what prefixal and suffixal elements are applied? What poetic techniques can be used to analyse the personal praises or praise names of Kings, Royal Family Members and the ordinary people? It has therefore, been realized that the personal names and place names are well known to have played a more substantial role in the identification of different people and places of different clans. Surnames and address names have promoted the identification and classification of different clans. The researcher has used both the qualitative and quantitative research methodologies as tools for data collection. Research methods have entailed verbal descriptive practices, which include oral inquiries, questionnaires, interviews and observational information. The purpose of this research has been to locate the study within the context of the topic and the historical background of the Shangase people which eventually deals with personal names, place-names and personal praises. The literature has been reviewed according to the recommendations of the researcher's supervisor Prof S.E. Ngubane. Five scholars were chosen and the focus was on history, genealogy, linguistic, onomastics of personal names, place-names and how these names are derived and changed from time to time with naming practices changing from generation to generation. This has enabled every member of the Shangase clan to identify himself easily with the founder, Shangase (Mkheshane), son of Vumizitha, of Mthebe of Mnguni 1. The researcher's main objective has been to focus on the history and genealogy of the Shangase clan from the time of Vumizitha (d.c.l688) to the present time (AD 2006), how personal names and place names are given when one looks at the circumstances of naming and history surrounding the names and the linguistic analysis of the onomactic elements. The personal names, place names and praise names are analysed and synthesized within the parameters of word formation, and as words they are isolated or syntactically used to assign a particular meaning in Zulu. Lastly, the researcher is mostly interested in this study because, as a member of the Shangase Community, he has a thorough knowledge of where the Shangase clan is located. The researcher's method of interviews using interview questionnaires assisted him to accomplish the main objectives. Through these interviews and observations, the researcher highly recommends that those who might be able to read this thesis, and feel interested and create new challenges in the field of onomastics, which the researcher hopes this thesis has done, should further undertake a study of personal praises within the Shangase clan. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2006.

This paper proposes the notion that words mirror ideas, perspectives and worldviews. Etymologies and meanings of general words for ‘islands’ in a number of languagesin North and West Europe are then discussed. Here, islands are shown to be etymologicallyconstituted by the interplay between land and water, and which of these two is emphasizedvaries. In the third section, a number of Swedish island words are surveyed, in an attemptto illuminate the principle of linguistic relativity. Finally, the implications of these findingsfor island studies are discussed.