Purpose: Concrete is a widely used construction material for mainly buildingfoundations. In Sweden Eurocode is used to dimension the minimum reinforcement that is supposed to limit the cracking of the concrete after casting, but cracking is nevertheless a common problem. The aim of this paper is to investigate how structural engineers choose the reinforcement in slabs on ground and how the construction is affected by the choice of reinforcement. Method: In the study, a literature study is made with articles within minimum reinforcement and cracking problems. A document analysis is made of how the Eurocode should be interpreted and used to calculate the minimum reinforcement amounts and crack widths. There are structured interviews with five design companies to investigate how minimum reinforcement is chosen for three different types of slabon ground. Findings: The results of the study show that the final construction might be both physically and economically affected in a negative way due to the fact that the wanted minimum reinforcement levels and crack widths are not always reached. Implications: The findings implicate that the choice of minimum reinforcement is done in different ways among engineers, and a significant difference in the levels could be seen. The recommendations are that the formula for crack width limitation should be used first, lower rebar dimensions should be used and that the communication between building construction engineer and builder should beimproved. Limitations: The study was limited to five interviews with building construction engineers, only three different slab examples were given to the interviewees for calculation of crack limitation reinforcement. Hence the results are not generally useful for all types of slab on ground. Keywords: Crack width, eurocode, eurokod, minimum reinforcement, slab on ground

Des barres en acier à section ouverte sont, dans la majorité des cas, soumises à une combinaison d’effort normal et de flexion bi-axiale. Cependant, en raison de leur utilisation elles peuvent également être soumises à un moment de torsion. Même si les barres à section ouverte peuvent être soumises à des charges de torsion en pratique, l’Eurocode 3, ne définit pas comment la résistance de la barre peut être déterminée dans ces conditions. Ce pourquoi, l’objectif principal de cette thèse est de remplir cette lacune. Pour atteindre cet objectif, le comportement des barres métalliques soumises à une combinaison complexe de charges est étudié par voie théorique, expérimentale et numérique. Tout d’abord, la résistance plastique des barres est étudiée. En cas de torsion, il a été montré que les barres à section ouverte possèdent une réserve plastique importante qui ne peut pas être mise en évidence à l’aide d’une simple analyse élastique. Afin de tenir compte de l’effet bénéfique de la réserve plastique en torsion, une méthode d’analyse simplifiée est développée et validée par des analyses numériques. Ensuite, l’interaction plastique entre les efforts internes est étudiée. Des essais en laboratoire ont été réalisés afin de caractériser l’interaction entre l’effort tranchant et le moment de flexion. L’étude est ensuite étendue à l’aide de simulations numériques sur des cas d’interaction plus complexes incluant notamment des moments de torsion. Les essais accompagnés par l’étude numérique ont permis de mettre au point un modèle de résistance basé sur la méthode « Partial Internal Force Method » développée dans le passé. La dernière partie de la thèse concerne la résistance des barres à l’instabilité. Un modèle de résistance incluant l’effet de l’instabilité élasto-plastique est développé pour les barres métalliques en présence de torsion. Cette méthode est basée sur une extension des formules d’interaction proposées dans l’Eurocode. Afin de franchir certaines limitations liées à cette méthode, un deuxième modèle de résistance est développé pour les barres en I dans le format du « Overall Interaction Concept » / Structural steel members with open cross-section are, in the majority of cases, subject to a combination of axial forces and mono- or bi-axial bending. Nonetheless, owing to specific use they may be subject to torsion as well. Even if torsional loads are of practical interest for steel members of open section, the European standard for the design of steel structures, Eurocode 3, does not contain a generally accepted design method addressing the resistance of these members. Consequently, the main objective of this thesis is to close the lack in the current standard. So as to attain this objective the behaviour of members of open section subject to a complex load combination has been studied theoretically, experimentally and numerically. First, the plastic resistance of steel members has been analysed. It has been shown that members subject to torsion may possess a high plastic system reserve that cannot be predicted by simple elastic analysis. So as to account for the beneficial effect of the plastic reserve, a simplified analysis method has been developed and validated with numerical simulations. After this, the plastic interaction between all internal forces and moments has been studied. Several laboratory tests have been performed to characterise the interaction between bending moments and the shear force. The study is then extended to more complex interaction cases including torsion by means of numerical simulations. The laboratory test and the numerical simulations allowed the development of a precise resistance model based on the “Partial Internal Force Method” developed in the past. The last part of this thesis was dedicated to the member resistance including instability. A resistance model has been developed based on the Eurocode 3 interaction equations. So as to overcome some of the limitations linked to this method, a second design approach is developed based on the “Overall Interaction Concept”

The design of back-anchored retaining walls in Sweden has traditionally not included global elastic instability of the retaining wall as a possible failure mode. Eurocode 3 part 5 (SS-EN 1993-5) requires design of steel structural members for retaining walls to assess the risk of buckling if the normal force exceeds 4 % of the critical buckling load of the retaining wall. The geological conditions in Eastern Sweden are characterized by the intersection of very hard Precambrian rock and very soft Holocene clays. Thus often ground anchors anchored in rock at a 30-50 degree angle to the vertical plane are used to support retaining walls, resulting in a very high utilization of the ground anchor and a significant normal force in the retaining wall. The threshold value for buckling risk is consequently frequently exceeded and the specific failure mode, of global buckling, is often limiting the use of the structural members in practical design. The buckling load can either be calculated using Euler’s second or third buckling mode, or by modelling the soil-structure interaction by a suitable model. Since no such model is specified in the code, the aim of this thesis was to develop a model which takes into account the stabilizing effect of the soil for the calculation of the buckling force and to model the soil-structure interaction with a beam-spring model connected to Winkler springs. The model simulations show that the soil has a significant influence on the critical load, especially when the retaining wall base is driven to depths greater than 2 meters below excavation depth. The model simulations suggest that higher utilization, with up to 4 times greater critical load, of the steel members is possible for some specific cases and an idealized design factor is also elaborated. / Dimensioneringen av bakåtförankrade spontväggar har traditionellt sett i Sverige inte tagit hänsyn till risken för global knäckning. I och med införandet av Eurokod 3 kapitel 5 (SS-EN 1993-5) som styrande dokument vid dimensionering av sponter måste risken för knäckning nu mera beaktas när normalkraften överstiger 4 % av den kritiska knäckningslasten. De geologiska förhållandena i de östra delarna av Sverige, med lösa leror som täcker hårt berg, leder till att bakåtförankrade sponter med brant lutande stag ofta används. Detta leder till en hög utnyttjandegrad av ankaret och också stora normalkrafter i sponten, vilket leder till att knäckning ofta blir dimensionerande brottmod för sponten. Metoden för att beräkna knäckningslasten kan enligt SS-EN 1993-5 göras med Eulers andra eller tredje knäckningsfall eller med en modell som tar hänsyn till jordens stabiliserande effekt. Idag finns ingen sådan numerisk modell att hitta i litteraturen, varför målet med detta arbete har varit att finna en lämplig modell för att ta hänsyn till jordens inverkan vid bestämning av knäckningslasten. För att modellera samverkan mellan jorden och sponten användes en balkmodell med Winkler fjädrar. Simuleringarna visar att jorden har en signifikant inverkan på den kritiska knäckningslasten, särskilt när nedslagsdjupet är större än 2 meter. Flera simulerade geometrier har gett drygt fyra gånger högre knäcklast jämfört med den knäcklast som erhålls om SS-EN 1993-5 följs. Om jorden tas hänsyn till i dimensioneringen av en spont skulle således slankare konstruktioner kunna användas.

Under den senaste tiden har det upplevts en större oro i omvärlden och fred är inte längreen självklarhet i Europa. Människor är oroliga för den eskalerande situationen i Europaoch det har skapat ett osäkert säkerhetspolitiskt läge i världen. Befintlig konstruktion,fasta installationer och människor kan i framtiden hamna i risk för allvarliga skador frånexplosioner. Detta är ett samhällsproblem som det bör finnas en lösning till. C3CEngineering AB är ett skandinaviskt företag som tillverkar prefabricerade betongblock avtill största del återvunnen betong. Betongblocken är utformade enligt lego-principen ochär lätta att etablera och stapla på varandra. Befintliga muruppställningar och blocktillämpas vid flera olika användningsområden, exempelvis återvinningscenter ochinfrastruktur. Betongblocken kan även ha betydande användning som skydd vidkrissituationer.Syftet med arbetet var att utforma olika muruppställningar med betongelement från C3CEngineering AB för skydd mot explosioner. Muruppställningarna skall fungera som enskyddsbarriär vid kris och skydda bakomliggande objekt och människor bakom muren.Betongblock C3Cblock® 1688 har använts för de olika muruppställningarna eftersom detfinns ett stort lagersaldo av blocken i Sverige. Blockdimensionen är (1600 x 800 x 800millimeter) och blocken har beräknats från minsta tillverkningshållfasthet C20/25.En explosionslast är en dynamisk belastning på en konstruktion. En statiskt ekvivalentlast har använts vid beräkningarna för detta arbete. Blocken och muruppställningarna harundersökts utifrån vilka dimensionerande laster de klarar av samt vid olikabelastningsfall. Vid dimensionering har splitterverkan, hållfasthet, skjuvning,dymlingsverkan, glidning, stjälpning, markbärighet och inverkan av utböjningkontrollerats. Splitterverkan har kontrollerats utifrån MSB:s dokument för skyddsrum ochbetonghållfasthet har kontrollerats enligt Eurocode 2. Intervjuer med en teknisk specialistfrån MSB har utförts för att få en korrekt beskrivning av explosionslasternas beteende.Målet är att blocken skall kunna användas i både fredstid och vid en eventuellkrissituation. Blocken kan användas i offentliga miljöer som bullerskydd ellerläktarplatser och kan snabbt etableras som skyddsmurar vid behov.Resultatet visar att murar utformade med längre hävarmar klarar generellt av störredimensionerande laster vid stjälpning. Vid användningen av kontreforer kan murar medfärre betongblock motstå samma dimensionerande laster jämfört med bredare och tyngremurar utan kontreforer. Densiteten hos betongelementen är betydelsefull i fleradimensionerade lastfall.Arbetets avgränsningar leder till att de angivna statiskt ekvivalenta lasterna från resultatetkan inte kopplas till exakta dynamiska laster från en specifik explosion. Vidare forskningrelaterad till hur dynamiska laster på muruppställningarna beräknas om till statisktekvivalenta laster är en förutsättning för att besvara detta.Endast en typ av betongblock har använts för att modellera murarna och användningen avandra blocktyper kan resultera i andra murar med nya dimensioner och dimensionerandelaster. / In order to account for the rising risk of injury and damage to structures and people fromexplosions, the use of mobile and stable concrete protection walls is more relevant thanever. The Scandinavian company C3C Engineering AB designs and produces concreteelements which can interlock using the lego principle. The load capacity before criticalfailure of protective walls using C3Cblock® 1688 has been investigated in this study.Several failure modes such as shrapnel damage, sliding and foundation deformation wasstudied, to name a few. For each type of protective wall and failure stats a maximum loadcapacity was calculated.The study intended to answer which failure mode occurs first for each type of protectivewall. The deciding factors that determine a wall's maximum load capacity againstexplosions were also studied and analysed.The results are based on calculations using Mathcad Prime 7.0.0, and interviews withemployees at C3C Engineering AB and consultants for Myndigheten för samhällsskyddoch beredskap (MSB). For control of concrete, formulas and values from Eurocode 2were used.The results indicate that the protective wall's leverage length is a decisive factor forseveral failure modes, followed by the total weight of the construction. Increasing thedensity for the concrete elements result in heavier walls and thus greatly benefits theconstruction as a whole.

Ce projet s’inscrit dans le cadre de la phase de conception d’un pont autoroutier dans la province de Québec au Canada. Une des variantes proposées comporte la construction d’un tablier en béton précontraint par encorbellements successifs. Il est prévu d’utiliser un béton à hautes performances avec fumée de silice et avec air entraîné pour le tablier et les piles. La résistance à la compression visée est de 40 MPa à trois jours, rendue possible par l’adjonction de fumée de silice. Une campagne d’essais a été réalisée, d’une part pour élaborer une composition qui réponde aux critères de performance et d’autre part afin de caractériser le comportement mécanique et viscoélastique du BHP. Un essai de retrait et de fluage d’une durée de 16 mois a été réalisé, conformément aux recommandations du document TC107-CSP de la RILEM. Le BHP a été testé dans des conditions endogènes et de séchage, à plusieurs échéances de chargement soit 3, 7, 28 et 90 jours après le bétonnage. Comme le béton formulé pour le projet possède des caractéristiques peu communes, il convient de s’assurer que le BHP présente des déformations acceptables et qui peuvent être correctement prédites par les modèles réglementaires. Le retrait endogène, le retrait total le fluage propre et le fluage total sont mesurés avec un comparateur manuel et avec une corde vibrante placée au coeur des éprouvettes. Le modèle B4 de base prédit correctement les deux types de retrait. Après 16 mois, le retrait endogène du BHP s’élève 350 μm/m tandis que le retrait de séchage atteint 340 μm/m. Le retrait de séchage et le fluage de dessiccation ne semblent pas avoir atteint un palier final à la fin des essais. Le modèle de l’Eurocode 2 Annexe B prédit le mieux les deux types de fluage lorsqu’on considère qu’il n’y a pas de fumée de silice dans le modèle. Trois modèles ont été ajustés et extrapolés à très long terme : Eurocode 2 Annexe B, fib 2010 et le modèle B4. Les paramètres intrinsèques au matériau dans les équations de ces modèles sont optimisés et présentés dans le but d’être intégrés dans les calculs d’analyse et de dimensionnement du pont. Le fib 2010 ne semble pas adapté pour modéliser convenablement le fluage de dessiccation. Le modèle B4 ajusté avec les mesures de pertes d’eau prédit le fluage le plus important à 50 ans. Il parait néanmoins difficile de conclure sur une valeur finale à très long terme sans avoir effectivement atteint la fin du séchage pendant l’essai.

An arched structure provides an effective load carrying system for large span structures. When it comes to long span roof structures, timber arches are one of the best solutions from both structural and aesthetical point of view. Glulam arched structures are often designed using slender elements due to economic consideration. Such slender cross-section shape increases the risk of instability. Instability analysis of straight members such as beam and column are explicitly defined in Eurocode. However, for instability of curved members no analytical approach is provided in the code, thus some numerical method is required. Nonetheless, an approximation is frequently used to obtain the effective buckling length for the arched structures in the plane of arches. In this master thesis a linear buckling analysis is carried out in Abaqus to obtain an optimal effective buckling length both in-plane and out-of-plane for circular glulam arched structures. The elastic springs are used to simulate the overall stiffness of the bracing system. The results obtained by the FE simulations are compared with a simple approximation method. Besides, the forces acting on the bracings system is obtained based on 3D geometric nonlinear stress analysis of the timber trusses. Our findings conclude that the approximation method overestimates the effective buckling length for the circular glulam arched structures. In addition, the study indicates that the position of the lateral supports along the length of the arch is an important design aspect for buckling behaviour of the arched structures. Moreover, in order to acquire an effective structure lateral supports are needed both in extrados and intrados. Furthermore, instead of using elastic spring elements to simulate the overall stiffness of the bracing system, a full 3D simulation of two parallel arches was performed. It was shown that the springs are stronger than the real bracing system for the studied arch.

Στην παρούσα διατριβή, η οποία πραγματεύεται τις θεμελιώσεις κατασκευών, πρωτίστως αναφέρονται οι προδιαγραφές που οφείλονται να τηρούνται ως προς την ασφάλεια και τη λειτουργικότητα της ανωδομής. Γίνεται αναφορά στη σπουδαιότητα της γεωτεχνικής έρευνας και στους τρόπους και τις μεθόδους με τις οποίες αυτή διεξάγεται. Στη συνέχεια ορίζονται τα κριτήρια σχεδιασμού μιας θεμελίωσης, δηλαδή το πρόβλημα αστοχίας και το πρόβλημα λειτουργικότητας. Παρατίθενται τρόποι υπολογισμού της φέρουσας ικανότητας για διάφορες εδαφικές συνθήκες για αβαθείς θεμελιώσεις, καθώς και ο υπολογισμός συντελεστών ασφαλείας με κλασικές μεθόδους καθώς και κατά τον Ευροκώδικα EC-7. Σχετικά με τις καθιζήσεις, αναφέρονται οι κατηγορίες τους και γίνεται υπολογισμός ανά περίπτωση και τύπο εδάφους, ενώ σημειώνονται και τα αποτελέσματα τους στις κατασκευές. Επίσης, συνοψίζονται τα επιτρεπόμενα όρια των καθιζήσεων. Ακολουθούν μεθοδολογίες για το σχεδιασμό των τριών τύπων αβαθών θεμελιώσεων, δηλαδή για μεμονωμένα θεμέλια, πεδιλοδοκούς και γενική κοιτόστρωση με γνώμονα να πληρούνται τα κριτήρια σχεδιασμού. Έπειτα περιγράφονται οι βαθιές θεμελιώσεις, καθώς και οι τρόποι υπολογισμού της φέρουσας ικανότητας τους και των καθιζήσεων που προκαλούν. Γίνονται εφαρμογές διάφορων μορφών θεμελιώσεων, για μια διώροφη οικοδομή, σε δύο διαφορετικές και χαρακτηριστικές περιοχές της πόλης των Πατρών με δεδομένα από δειγματοληπτικές γεωτρήσεις. Η πρώτη περιοχή αφορά το ανατολικό τμήμα της πόλης (περιοχή στρατοπέδου ΚΕΤΧ) όπου επιφανειακά συναντάται στρώμα σκληρής πολύ αμμώδους αργίλου και σχεδιάζεται επιφανειακή θεμελίωση με εναλλακτικούς τρόπους. Η δεύτερη περιοχή αφορά την παράκτια ζώνη της πόλης, όπου συναντάται επιφανειακό στρώμα μαλακών εδαφών σημαντικού πάχους και γίνεται διαστασιολόγηση για βαθειά θεμελίωση έγχυτων πασάλων τριβής. / At first, in this thesis, which deals with foundations in constructions, there is a mention for specifications required to ensure both safety and functionality of the structure. Also, there is a reference in geotechnical investigation and methods importance. Additionally, designing criteria for foundations are defined as both “failure matter” and “ functionality (settlements) matter”. Formulas and methods of calculating bearing capacity of shallow foundations for different territory types are listed. There are also methods for calculating factors of safety (classical methods, Eurocode EC-7). There is a reference in settlement categories and the way of calculating settlement value regarding their type and the soil environment. Allowable limits of settlements are summarized, as well. Thereafter, there are analyzed the ways of designing all shallow foundation types, which are individual footings, spread footings and raft foundation, so as designing criteria are met. Deep foundations are described, as well as methods of calculating their bearing capacity and settlement value. Finally, different foundation applications are presented as possible solutions, for a two storey building structure, in two different and characteristic areas in Patras. Data have been exported from sample drillings. The first area, is located in Eastern Patras, (camp of KETEX), where there is a surface soil layer of hard, very sandy clay. There, it is designed shallow foundation in variable and alternative ways. The second area, is located in the coastal zone of Patras, where there is a surface quit thick layer of soft deposits. There, the building construction is being based by designing concrete injector piles.

Deux types de modèles applicables à l'analyse globale de poutres mixtes acier béton sont présentés et analysés dans le mémoire de thèse. Le modèle analytique, basé sur la théorie élastique des poutres, permet le calcul du glissement et de son influence sur les flèches de poutres mixtes simples et continues. Le comportement non linéaire de la poutre mixte est étudié au moyen d'une modélisation par éléments finis. Une formulation par éléments de coque est utilisée pour représenter la dalle et la poutre métallique. La connextion est formulée par des éléments de poutre courts. Le modèle éléments finis tridimensionnel est validé par la confrontation à des résultats expérimentaux de différentes sources. Il s'avère être efficace pour représenter l'influence du glissement et de la fissuration du béton sur la raideur de la poutre mixte. Des exemples numériques illustrent l'application des modèles à l'analyse globale de poutres simples, continues et planchers mixtes

The European standard Eurocode 5, a design method for timber structures,is currently under revision. In this study the draft for a reviseddesign method for vibrations in timber floors was compared to the currentmethod. The hypothesis of the thesis was that the revised designmethod might force some changes to the present construction practiceand that these changes may carry with them increased costs for the industry.Six common floor structures used in Sweden today were identifiedand for these floors design calculations were made according to the currentand the revised design method. It was checked whether the floorspassed the criteria in the two design methods and a comparison was madefor the only criterion which could be compared between the methods, thepoint load deflection. Floor structures could pass or fail the current designmethod based on two criteria, the point load deflection and the unitimpulse velocity response. All floors passed the current design methodexcept one which had a fundamental frequency below 8 Hz, because ofthe low frequency the current design method was not applicable to thefloor structure. In the revised design method the final result is a responsefactor and based on the response factor floors are given floor performancelevels. The seven step scale for the floor performance level go from I toVII where I is excellent and VII is unacceptable. All floor structures excepttwo achieved an acceptable floor performance level according to therevised design method. The two floors which failed were floors commonlyused in single family houses, they failed for a span length commonly usedtoday. A limited parametric study was performed where it was found thatthe modal mass used had a larger impact on the floor performance levelthan the mass per square meter included. For floors with a fundamentalfrequency above 8 Hz, including a higher mass per square meter resultedin a lower, i.e. better, response factor in all cases except one. For floorswith a fundamental frequency between 4.5 and 8 Hz, a higher mass resultedin a higher, i.e. worse, response factor. The study found that notall floor structures used in Sweden today are acceptable according to therevised design method therefore changes may have to be implemented andthese changes could result in an increased cost.

<p>Till grund för detta examensarbete ligger en ineffektiv process, samt dubbelarbete som idag utgör arbetsgången vid CAD-projektering för konstruktörer hos Structor i Karlstad. Målet med examensarbetet är att genomföra en kompatibilitetskontroll av 3D-modelleringsprogrammet Tekla Structures 15.0 mot analys- och beräkningsprogrammen Autodesk Robot Structural Analysis Professional 2010 samt Strusoft FEM-Design. Syftet är att med hjälp av kompatiblitetskontrollen utgöra vilket av programmen Autodesk Robot och FEM-Design som bäst lämpar sig att köras tillsammans med Tekla Structures utifrån valda faktorer. Två äldre examensarbeten används för att få en uppfattning om FEM-Design.</p><p> </p><p>För att undvika det omfattande och tidskrävande arbetet med att skapa två modeller, en grafisk samt en analytisk modell, finns en lösning. Genom att skapa den grafiska modellen i Tekla Structures 15.0, vilket sedermera genererar den analytiska modellen, och sedan exportera den via länk till Autodesk Robot Structural Analysis 2010 behövs bara en modellering. Ett arbetsmoment, som förut inneburit ytterligare en modellering i analysprogrammet, undviks härmed. Medveten modellering, det vill säga kontinuerlig kontroll av den analytiska modellens utseende i Tekla, krävs för mest fördelaktiga resultat. Detta bör finnas i åtanke under hela arbetsprocessen. Det är i slutändan alltid projektören/konstruktören som styr hur Robot i sin tur kommer att behandla modellen som skickas från Tekla.</p><p> </p><p>Laster och lastkombinationer går att justera i både Tekla och Robot. Dock anses det, för en van Teklaanvändare, vara smidigast att hantera detta i Tekla. Om detta sker i Tekla behövs ytterligare inställningar i Robot aldrig göras. Robot utför då endast analysen och bearbetar de resultat som analysen utgör. De resultat som återfinns går att behandla i Robot och redovisas på sätt som är relevanta för respektive användare. De grundläggande resultaten, så som största påverkande moment och tvärkraft, går att importera tillbaka till modellen i Tekla och hamnar då under respektive profils attributinställningar.</p>