Nos últimos anos, complexos de irídio tem sido sugeridos para uso em materiais luminescentes, tais como diodos orgânicos emissores de luz (OLED\'s) e células eletroquímicas emissoras de luz (LEEC\'s). Suas potenciais utilidades como dispositivo é devido as suas características físico-químicas e fotofísicas, as quais são caracterizadas por tempos de vida curtos para o tripleto, estabilidade térmica, além da possibilidade de modificar a emissão sobre uma vasta gama de cores do espectro. Atualmente, muitas pesquisas tentam encontrar complexos de irídio com emissão de luz azul. No entanto, embora emissores de luz azul já tenham sido desenvolvidos, existe o problema relacionado a agregação destes complexos. Para resolver este o problema da agregação é necessário modificar a estrutura padrão do complexo com cadeias carbônicas saturadas para evitar empilhamento π-π. Experimentalmente esta é uma tarefa um tanto difícil. Dessa forma, métodos computacionais têm sido viáveis como uma abordagem para entender a estrutura e propriedades eletrônicas dos sistemas estudados. Aqui, é apresentado um estudo teórico baseado na teoria do funcional da densidade (DFT) para investigar a agregação de complexos de irídio, além de predizer como esta pode ser controlada com o uso de grupos substituintes adequados. Os cálculos foram realizados usando funcional PBE0 e conjunto de base 6-31G*, o qual provou ser adequada na descrição das propriedades do complexo. Portanto, cálculos subsequentes mostraram bons resultados, onde os estados excitados foram previstos ser de natureza predominantemente MLCT (transferência de carga do metal para o ligante) para o complexo 1 e LC (carga centrada no ligante) para o complexo 2. Alterações no ambiente químico provou ter grande influência sobre os estados excitados, onde a inclusão do solvente favoreceu a estabilidade, mantendo os estados excitados tripletos com energia entre 3.01 eV e 3.03 eV. Além disso, o uso dos grupos substituintes provou ser de grande importância para prevenir a agregação, especialmente no complexo 2, em que a partir do dímero matriz (sem substituintes) para o complexo substituído 2-1 (com metil) houve uma desestabilização da energia de interação entre os monômeros no dímero por ~ 19.78 kcal/mol, sendo que a energia do primeiro foi estimada ser -39.78 kcal/mol, enquanto o segundo foi -20 kcal/mol. Nossos resultados sugerem que a modificação do complexo torna-se bastante promissora, fazendo uso de pequenos grupos substituintes e cadeias carbônicas alifáticas, evitando assim, a agregação por empilhamento π-π. / In the last few years, iridium complexes have been suggested for use in luminescent materials such as organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) and light emitting electrochemical cells (LEECs)1-3. Their potential utility as luminescent devices is due to the physicochemical and photophysical properties, which are featured by short triplet emitting lifetimes (microseconds time scale), thermal stability, besides of possibility to tune the emission over desired spectral range. Actually, many researches try to find iridium complexes with efficient deep-blue emission, in order to use in these devices. Although many deep-blue emitters have been developed, there is still a big problem related to aggregation. So far, little has been reported about iridium complexes in solid environments, such as inorganic matrix of OLEDs and LEECs devices. To solve this issue is needed tune the structure of the complex in order to prevent the aggregation (steric hindrance), by means of drawing saturated carbon chains on the ligands to avoid the π-π stacking. Experimentally, this is a rather challenging and expensive task. In this aspect, computational methods have been performed as approaches to gain deeper insights about the structure and electronic properties of the studied systems. Here, we present a theoretical study based on density functional theory to investigate the aggregation iridium complexes, in addition to predict how this can be controlled with the use of suitable substituent groups. Calculations were performed using functional PBE0 and 6-31G* basis functions, which proved adequate in describing the properties of the complex. Therefore, subsequent calculations showed good results, where the excited state of the complex are provided, these being predominantly MLCT (metal to ligand charge transfer) nature for the complex 1 and LC (ligand centered) nature to complex 2. Changes in the chemical environment proved to have great influence on the excited states, where the inclusion of the solvent favored its stability, keeping the triplet excited states with energy between 3.01 and 3.03 eV. Furthermore, the use of substituent groups proved to be of great importance to prevent aggregation, especially in complex 2, wherein from the matrix dimer (no substituted) to complex with methyl groups there was a destabilization of the interaction energy between the monomers in the dimer by ~ 19.78 kcal / mol, being that the energy of the first was -39.78 kcal / mol, while the second was to -20 kcal / mol. Our results suggest that the modification of the complex becomes quite promising, making use of small groups and aliphatic carbon chains, thus avoiding aggregation by stacking.

Absorção e Emissão de radiação eletromagnética por moléculas na região do UV-Vis fornece informações sobre os estados eletrônicos excitados, sendo propriedades de grande interesse devido a sua relação com processos biológicos, bem como suas possíveis aplicações em diagnósticos e tecnologia. Essas propriedades são sensíveis ao meio em que as moléculas se encontram, tornando-se assim natural a busca por métodos teóricos que possibilitam descrever essas interações. Neste trabalho, nós usamos a metodologia Sequential-Quantum Mechanics/Molecular Mechanics para estudar o espectro de absorção e de emissão de moléculas de relevância biológica, quando em solução. Simulações clássicas Monte Carlo foram usadas pra construir uma configuração eletrostática média do líquido para posterior cálculo das propriedades, feito através dos métodos multiconfiguracionais CASSCF e CASPT2. Cuidados especiais foram tomados para incluir a polarização eletrônica que o soluto sofre devido à presença do solvente. Nossa contribuição é a adaptação do método do Gradiente de Energia Livre para permitir a obtenção de geometrias de estados excitados do soluto em solução. A técnica foi implementada em um programa e aplicada com sucesso nos sistemas estudados. As perspectivas agora se abrem para a obtenção de intersecções cônicas em meio solvente, permitindo assim o estudo de decaimentos não-radiativos em sistemas solvatados. / Absorption and emission of electromagnetic radiation by molecules in the UV-Vis region yields information about the electronic excited states, being properties of great interest due its relation with biological process, as well as its possible applications in diagnostics and technology. These properties are sensible to the environment in which the molecules are, making natural the search for theoretical methods that describe these interactions. In this work, we have used the Sequential-Quantum Mechanics/Molecular Mechanics methodology to study the spectrum of absorption and emission of molecules of biological relevance, when in solution. Classical Monte Carlo simulations were carried out to construct an average solvent electrostatic configuration and used to represent the liquid in posterior quantum mechanics calculation of the properties, performed by using the multiconfigurational methods CASSCF and CASPT2. Special cares were taken to include the electronic polarization of the solute due the solvent. Our contribution is the adaptation of the Free Energy Gradient method to allow the determination of the solute excited states geometries in solution. The method was implemented in a computer program and successfully applied in the systems studied. The perspectives are now open to the calculation of conical intersection in solvent environment, enabling the study of nonradioactive decays in solvated systems.

Esta tese apresenta uma nova aproximação variacional baseada no Método da Coordenada Geradora e na Teoria do Funcional da Densidade. Nesta nova aproximação, a função de onda de muitos corpos é representada como uma superposição de determinantes de Slater Kohn-Sham não-ortogonais calculados a partir de Hamiltonianos diferentes que carregam uma coordenada geradora atuando como parâmetro de deformação. A discretização integral sobre o conjunto de coordenadas geradoras fornece a energia total variacional do sistema e a contribuição de cada determinante na combinação da respectiva função de onda de muitos corpos. A flexibilidade desta nova metodologia permitiu aplicá-la no estudo das energias totais do estado fundamental e excitado dos átomos da série isoeletrônica do Hélio, utilizando diferentes conjuntos de coordenadas geradoras, diferentes aproximações para o potencial de troca e correlação e diferentes maneiras de implementar a coordenada geradora dentro do Hamiltoniano Kohn-Sham. Em seguida, as bases desta nova metodologia foram estendidas para o caso dependente do tempo, permitindo estudar, por exemplo, processos não-lineares como excitações duplas, conhecidas por sua forte dependência dos efeitos de memória. A nova metodologia foi aplicada no estudo das oscilações paramétricas de um sistema de dois elétron sob um potencial harmônico, o átomo de Hooke. Os resultados demonstram que a escolha adequada das coordenadas geradoras reproduz com precisão os efeitos lineares e não-lineares dos elétrons do sistema que não podem ser descritos pela Teoria do Funcional da Densidade Dependente do Tempo utilizando a aproximação adiabática. Assim, a nova metodologia mostra-se: flexível, pois permite calcular propriedades do estado fundamental e excitado, estáticas e dinâmicas dos sistemas eletrônicos fornecendo ainda uma aproximação variacional para as respectivas funções de onda de muitos corpos em todos os casos; e também viável, pois fornece resultados promissores no caso independente do tempo constituindo uma ferramenta simples e computacionalmente barata de incluir os efeitos de memória em qualquer aproximação adiabática no caso dependente do tempo. / A new variational approach based on the Generator Coordinate Method and Density- Functional Theory is presented. It represents the interacting many-body wave function as a superposition of non-orthogonal Kohn-Sham Slater determinants arising from different Hamiltonians featuring a generator coordinate acting as a deformation parameter. An integral discretization procedure over the set of generator coordinates provides the variational total energy of the system and the weight of each determinant in the approximation of the respective interacting many-body wave functions. The method was used to calculate the ground and excited state total energies of the Helium isoelectronic serie of atoms using different sets of generator coordinates, different approximations to the exchange-correlation potential and different implementations of the generator coordinate whithin the Kohn-Sham Hamiltonian. Next, the time dependent extension of the method is presented allowing its application, for example, on the study of nonlinear processess as double excitations which are known to be strongly dependent of the memory effects. As an illustration, the method is sucessfully applied to driven parametric oscillations of a two interacting electrons in a harmonic potential, the Hooke\'s atom. It is demonstrated that a proper choice of time-dependent generator coordinates in conjunction with the adiabatic local-density approximation reproduces the exact linear and nonlinear twoelectron dynamics quite accurately, including features associated with double excitations that cannot be captured by Time-Dependent Density-Functional Theory in the adiabatic approximation. Therefore, the method is considered, flexible since it allows to calculate ground and excited-states, static and dynamic properties of the electronic systems yeilding a variational approach to the interacting many-body wave functions for all cases, and feasible, since it improves the results for ground and excited-states total energies in the time-independente case, besides to be a conceptually and computationally simple tool to build memory effects into any existing adiabatic exchange-correlation potential in the time-dependent case.

L'expérience NEMO3 était dédiée à la recherche de la désintégration ββ0ν à l'aide de diverses sources d'isotopes de désintégration double bêta (principalement ¹ººMo, ⁸²Se, ¹¹⁶Cd et ¹³ºTe pour un total d'environ 10 kg). Le détecteur était localisé dans le Laboratoire souterrain de Modane, à mi-parcours du tunnel du Fréjus. Cette expérience a permis de démontrer que la technologie "tracko-calo" est très compétitive et a de plus offert de nouveaux résultats pour la recherche des désintégrations ββ2ν et ββ0ν. Par ailleurs, elle a ouvert la voie pour son successeur SuperNEMO, dont le but est d'atteindre 100 kg de ⁸²Se (pour une sensibilité de 10²⁶ années). Le but principal de cette thèse a été de mesurer le temps de demi-vie des désintégrations ββ2ν et ββ0ν du ¹ººMo vers les états excités 0₁⁺ du ¹ººRu à l'aide des données totales de NEMO3, avec de nouvelles méthodes d'analyse et un développement du programme d'analyse de la collaboration. Les résultats obtenus pour la désintégration ββ2ν du ¹ººMo vers l'état fondamental (gs) et excité (0₁⁺) du ¹ººRu sont T1/2(ββ2ν,gs)=(7,05±0,01(stat)±0,54(syst)).10¹⁸ ans et T1/2(ββ2ν,0₁⁺)=(6,15±1,1(stat)±0,78)).10²º ans. Ces résultats sont compatibles avec les résultats publiés par la collaboration. Quant à la désintégration ββ0ν(0₁⁺), ce travail permet d’obtenir un temps de demi-vie de T1/2(ββ0ν, 0₁⁺)>2,6.10²³ ans, améliorant significativement les derniers résultats publiés. De plus ces méthodes ont aussi permis de présenter un nouveau modèle de bruit de fond de l'expérience, plus exhaustif. Le second but de ce travail a été de mesurer les erreurs systématiques du calorimètre de NEMO3 dues, entre autres, à la longueur d'onde des systèmes d’étalonnage du détecteur. Ce travail a été réalisé notamment à l'aide d'un banc de test basé sur des DEL. Ce banc a aussi permis de contribuer au développement du calorimètre de SuperNEMO, particulièrement au travers de mesures de linéarité et de caractéristiques temporelles des PM destinés au démonstrateur de l'expérience. / The NEMO3 experiment was researching the ββ0ν decay by using various sources of double beta decay isotopes (mainly ¹ººMo, ⁸²Se, ¹¹⁶Cd and ¹³⁰Te for about 10 kg in total). The detector was located in the “Laboratoire Souterrain de Modane”, in the halfway point of the Frejus tunnel. This experiment demonstrated that the "tracko-calo" technology is really competitive and, in addition, it gives new results for the ββ2ν and the ββ0ν decay research. Moreover it opened a new way for its successor SuperNEMO, which aim is to reach a mass of 100 kg of ⁸²Se (for a sensitivity of 10²⁶ years). The main goal of the thesis is to measure the ββ2ν and ββ0ν decay of the ¹ººMo to the excited state 0₁⁺ of the ¹ººRu thanks to the whole NEMO3 data, with new original methods of analysis and through the development of the collaboration analysis software. The results obtained for the ground states (gs) and excited states ββ2ν of the ¹ººMo are T1/2(ββ2ν,gs)=(7,05±0,01(stat)±0,54(syst)).10¹⁸ years and T1/2(ββ2ν, 0₁⁺)=(6,15±1,1(stat)±0,78)).10²º years. Those results are compatibles with the last published ones by the collaboration. For the ββ0ν(0₁⁺), this work gave a half-life time of T1/2 (ββ0ν, 0₁⁺)>2,6.10²³ years, improving significantly the last published results. Furthermore those methods also allowed to present a new and more exhaustive background noise model for this experiment. The second point of this work was to measure the systematics errors of the NEMO3 calorimeter, among others, due to the wavelength of the NEMO3 calibration systems. This work was done using a new test bench based on LED. This bench also allowed to contribute to the development of the SuperNEMO calorimeter, especially in the time characteristic and the energy linearity measurement of the PMT intended to the demonstrator of the experiments.

En chimie quantique, le principe variationnel est largement utilisé pour calculer la limite supérieure de l'énergie exacte d'un système atomique ou moléculaire. Des méthodes pour calculer la valeur limite inférieure de l'énergie existent mais sont bien moins connues. Une méthode précise pour calculer une telle limite inférieure permettrait de fournir une barre d'erreur théorique pour toute méthode de chimie quantique. Nous avons appliqué des méthodes de type variance pour calculer différentes énergies limites inférieures de l'atome d'hydrogène en utilisant des fonctions de base gaussiennes. L'énergie limite supérieure se trouve être toujours plus précise que ces différentes limites inférieures, i.e. plus proche de l'énergie exacte. L'importance de points singuliers sur l'évaluation de valeurs moyennes d'opérateurs quantiques a également été soulignée.Nous avons étudié les réactions d'adsorption d'un atome de fluor et d'un ion fluorure sur de petits agrégats de lithium Li$_n$ (n=2-15), à l'aide de méthodes de chimie quantique précises. Pour le plus petit système, nous avons montré que la formation de complexes stables Li$_2$F et Li$_2$F$^-$ se produit par un transfert d'électrons sans barrière et à longue portée, de Li$_2$ vers F pour le système neutre et l'inverse pour le système anionique. De telles réactions pourraient être rapides à très basse température. De plus, les complexes formés présentent des caractéristiques uniques de "longue liaison". Pour les systèmes plus gros Li$_n$F/Li$_n$F$^-$ ($n\geqslant4$), nous avons montré que les énergies d'adsorption peuvent être aussi grandes que 6~eV selon le site d'adsorption et que plus d'un état électronique est impliqué dans le processus d'adsorption. Les complexes formés présentent des propriétés intéressantes de "super alcalins" et pourraient servir d'unités de base dans la synthèse de composés à transfert de charge avec des propriétés ajustables. / In quantum chemistry, the variational principle is widely used to calculate an upper bound to the true energy of an atomic or molecular system. Methods for calculating the lower bound value to the energy exist but are much less known. An accurate method to calculate such a lower bound would allow to provide a theoretical error bar for any quantum chemistry method. We have applied variance-like methods to calculate different lower bound energies of a hydrogen atom using Gaussian basis functions. The upper bound energy is found to be always more accurate than the lower bound energies, i.e. closer to the exact energy. The importance of singular points on mean value evaluation of quantum operators has also been brought to attention.The adsorption reactions of atomic fluorine (F) and fluoride (F$^-$) on small lithium clusters Li$_n$ (n=2-15) have been investigated using accurate quantum chemistry ab initio methods. For the smallest system, we have shown that the formation of the stable Li$_2$F and Li$_2$F$^-$ complexes proceeds via a barrierless long-range electron transfer, from the Li$_2$ to F for the neutral and conversely from F$^-$ to Li$_2$ for the anionic system. Such reactions could be fast at very low temperature. Furthermore, the formed complexes show unique long bond characteristics. For the bigger Li$_n$F/Li$_n$F$^-$ systems ($n\geqslant 4$), we have shown that the adsorption energies can be as large as 6~eV depending on the adsorption site and that more than one electronic state is implied in the adsorption process. The formed complexes show interesting "superalkali" properties and could serve as building blocks in the synthesis of charge-transfer compounds with tunable properties.

Atomic physics plays an important role in determining the evolution stages in a wide range of laboratory and cosmic plasmas. Therefore, the main contribution to our ability to model, infer and control plasma sources is the knowledge of underlying atomic processes. Of particular importance are reliable low temperature dielectronic recombination (DR) rate coefficients. This thesis provides systematically calculated DR rate coefficients of lithium-like beryllium and sodium ions via ∆n = 0 doubly excited resonant states. The calculations are based on complex-scaled relativistic many-body perturbation theory in an all-order formulation within the single- and double-excitation coupled-cluster scheme, including radiative corrections. Comparison of DR resonance parameters (energy levels, autoionization widths, radiative transition probabilities and strengths) between our theoretical predictions and the heavy-ion storage rings experiments (CRYRING-Stockholm and TSRHeidelberg) shows good agreement. The intruder state problem is a principal obstacle for general application of the coupled-cluster formalism on doubly excited states. Thus, we have developed a technique designed to avoid the intruder state problem. It is based on a convenient partitioning of the Hilbert space and reformulation of the conventional set of pairequations. The general aspects of this development are discussed, and the effectiveness of its numerical implementation (within the non-relativistic framework) is selectively illustrated on autoionizing doubly excited states of helium.

A cryogenic (325-80 K) ion mobility-mass spectrometer was designed and constructed in order to improve the analytical figures-of-merit for the chemical analysis of small mass analytes using ion mobility-mass spectrometry. The instrument incorporates an electron ionization source, a quadrupole mass spectrometer, a uniform field drift cell spectrometer encased in a cryogenic envelope, and an orthogonal geometry time-of-flight mass spectrometer. The analytical benefits of low temperature ion mobility are discussed in terms of enhanced separation ability, ion selectivity and sensitivity. The distinction between resolving power and resolution for ion mobility is also discussed. Detailed experimental designs and rationales are provided for each instrument component. Tuning and calibration data and methods are also provided for the technique. Proof-of-concept experiments for an array of analytes including rare gases (argon, krypton, xenon), hydrocarbons (acetone, ethylene glycol, methanol), and halides (carbon tetrachloride) are provided in order to demonstrate the advantages and limitations of the instrument for obtaining analytically useful information. Trendline partitioning of small analyte ions based on chemical composition is demonstrated as a novel chemical analysis method. The utility of mobility-mass analysis for mass selected ions is also demonstrated, particularly for probing the ion chemistry which occurs in the drift tube for small mass ions. As a final demonstration of the separation abilities of the instrument, the electronic states of chromium and titanium (ground and excited) are separated with low temperature. The transition metal electronic state separations demonstrated here are at the highest resolution ever obtained for ion mobility methods. The electronic conformational mass isomers of methanol (conventional and distonic) are also partially separated at low temperature. Various drift gases (helium, neon, and argon) are explored for the methanol system in order to probe stronger ion-neutral interaction potentials and effectuate higher resolution separations of the two isomeric ions. Finally, two versatile ion source designs and a method for axially focusing ions at low pressure (1-10 torr) using electrostatic fields is presented along with some preliminary work on the ion sources.

The structural, electronic, and optical properties of a series of organic pi-conjugated polymer, oligomer, or molecular materials of interest for applications in organic electronics are described. For this purpose, quantum-chemical techniques ranging from Density Functional Theory to Hartree-Fock ab initio and semiempirical methods are used to evaluate the charge-transport, charge-transfer, and electroluminescence properties of pi-conjugated organic materials. First, the effect of electronic polarization on the charge-transport parameters of organic semiconductors is discussed. A generalized methodology based on a basis set orthogonalization procedure is developed to determine reliable charge-transport characteristics. The charge-transport parameters of a number of organic semiconductors such as oligoacenes and derivatives are studied with this methodology. Then, triplet emitters, in particular iridium complexes, that achieve high efficiency electroluminescence in organic light-emitting diodes are discussed. The effects of ligand substitution and orientation on the luminescent properties of iridium compounds are investigated in order to develop structure-properties relationships. The emission properties of these complexes are found to be governed by an interplay between metal-to-ligand charge transfer excitations and ligand-centered and/or interligand excitations. The extent of mixing of these various excitations turns out to be highly dependent on the nature of the substituents. Design strategies to shift the emission color towards deep blue are proposed. Finally, several classes of materials acting as hosts for phosphorescent emitters are studied. It is shown that restricting the conjugation length leads to high energy gap host materials suitable for blue phosphorescent emitters.

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Research Doctorate - Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / (**Note: this abstract is a plain text version of the author's abstract, the original of which contains characters and symbols which cannot be accurately represented in this format. The properly formatted abstract can be viewed in the Abstract and Thesis files above.**) The electronic structure and rovibrational spectroscopy of MH2, MHn+2, HMHen+ and MHen+2 (M = Li, Be, Na, Mg, K, Ca; n = 1, 2) have been investigated using correlated ab initio ansatz. In order to determine the efficacy of various electronic structure methods with respect to Group-I and II hydrides and helides, atomic properties of Li, Be,Na, Mg, K and Ca were calculated. Relativistically-corrected UCCSD(T) and ICMRCI(+Q) were deemed to be the most suitable ansatz with respect to both efficiency and accuracy. The lowest 2A1 and 2Σ- states of MH2 were found to be purely repulsive, in agreement with previous predictions. The main factor determining the structure and stability of the excited states of MH2 was the relative orientations and occupations of the valence p atomic orbital of M and the H2 1Ou orbital. The ground states of MHn+2 were found to be the result of the charge-quadrupole interaction between Mn+ and the H2 molecular subunit. The structures of the ground states of HMHe+ were extremely uxional with respect to the central bond angle co-ordinate. The ground state PESs of MHe+2 were also extremely sensitive to the ab initio ansatz by which they are modelled. The respective bonding of the H and He in both HMHe+ and HMHe2+ appeared to be charge-dependent in the case of Be, Mg and Ca. Despite the weak bonding observed for the Group-II hydrohelide and helide monocations, the corresponding dications each exhibit thermodynamically stable equilibria. The solution algorithm of von Nagy-Felsobuki and co-workers was employed in the calculation of vibrational and rovibrational spectra. This algorithm employed an Eckart-Watson Hamiltonian in conjunction with rectilinear normal co-ordinates. Vibrational and rovibrational Hamiltonian matrices were diagonalised using variational methods. This algorithm was extended so that the vibration transition moment integrals, and hence vibrational radiative properties, of linear triatomic molecules could be calculated. A method by which vibration-averaged structures are calculated was also developed and implemented. Analytical potential energy functions (PEFs) and dipole moment functions (DMFs) of (1A1)LiH+2, (1A1)NaH+2, (1A1)BeH2+2,(1A1)MgH2+2, (1Σ+g )BeHe2+2, (2Σ+)HBeHe2+, (1Σ+g )MgHe2+2 and (2Σ+)HMgHe2+ were developed using leastsquare regression techniques in conjunction with discrete ab initio grids. Vibrational structures and spectra of these species were subsequently calculated. In addition, the rovibrational spectra of (1A1)LiH+2, (1A1)NaH+2, (1A1)BeH2+2 and (1A1)MgH2+2 were calculated. For (1A1)LiH+2 and (1A1)LiD+2 , calculated rovibrational transition frequencies for J ≤ 10 and 0 ≤ K ≤ 3 were within ca. 0.1-0.2% of experimental values.