Para aqueles que acreditam que ética e negócios são instâncias separadas (tese da separação), Freeman e outros (2010) argumentam que eles podem estar juntos (tese da integração). Os autores defendem que a teoria do stakeholder é uma forma através da qual isso pode ocorrer. Nos certames da teoria do stakeholder, Phillips (2003) propôs o princípio de equidade do stakeholder, que resumidamente consiste em uma proposta que visa garantir um relacionamento ético entre organização e seus stakeholders. No presente estudo, se considera como stakeholder aqueles grupos que possuem obrigações mútuas com uma organização que vão além daquelas determinadas pelo que a moralidade da sociedade estabelece. Assim, com o objetivo de compreender como o princípio de equidade do stakeholder está presente, ou ausente, em uma organização específica, foi realizada uma pesquisa exploratória qualitativa, através de entrevistas em profundidade. As entrevistas transcritas foram analisadas através da análise de conteúdo, com técnica categorial, se tendo, as seguintes categorias: (A) moral, ética e justiça; (B) esquema cooperativo; (C) stakeholders: meios ou fins? Durante a análise, se compreendeu que o princípio de equidade do stakeholder está presente no relacionamento da Organização em questão com seus stakeholders conforme propôs Phillips (2003). Como achados, o trabalho levanta reflexões sobre o modelo genérico de esquema cooperativo, mostrando que os stakeholders derivativos podem ser menos frequentes do que aparentam ser. Também foi percebido pelo autor do estudo que ética, moral e justiça são conceitos que causam confusão aos entrevistados, o que leva a crer que é possível que outros membros da sociedade não tenham esses conceitos assimilados, merecendo mais atenção ao ensino de tais disciplinas. Por fim, o autor da presente dissertação destaca que o uso do bom senso, assim como agir honestamente e criar laços com outros indivíduos são caminhos para se manter uma boa relação com stakeholders. De forma a concluir o estudo, é feito um apelo para maior conscientização moral, não só dos administradores, mas também da sociedade, visando um mundo melhor para todos. / For those who believe that ethics and business are separated instances (separation thesis), Freeman et al (2010) argue that it can be together (integration thesis). The authors defend that the stakeholder theory is a way by which it can happen. In the field of stakeholder theory Phillips (2003) proposed the principle of stakeholder fairness which consists in a proposal that aims to guarantee an ethical relationship between organization and its stakeholders. In the present study stakeholder is considered as those groups which have mutual obligations with an organization. This obligations goes beyond those determined by what the society's morality has established. This study aims to comprehend how the principle of stakeholder fairness is, or is not, present in the management of an organization's stakeholders. For this purpose a qualitative explanatory research was done using deep interviews that were also transcript and analyzed by the categorical content analyses technique. It was proposed the following categories: (A) moral, ethics and justice; (B) cooperative scheme; (C) stakeholders: ways or endings? It was comprehended that the principle of stakeholder fairness is present in the relationship between the studied organization and its stakeholders as it was proposed by Phillips (2003). As findings the work brings thoughts about the generic model of the cooperative scheme showing that derivatives stakeholders can be less frequent as they seem to be. It was also realized by the author of the study that ethics, moral and justice are concepts that made confusion on the interviewers. It leads to believe that it's possible that other members of the society also do not have understood this concepts. This way the teaching of this disciplines deserves more attention. At the end, the author of the present dissertation detaches that the use of good sense, honest behavior and also the creation of ties with other individuals are good ways to keep a good relationship with stakeholders. In a way of concluding the study it was made an appeal for more moral consciousness not only for managers but also for the society, aiming a better world for everybody.

O altruísmo é um importante constructo comportamental envolvido nas relações sociais; mesmo que aparentemente não haja ganho imediato em ações altruístas, o objetivo de favorecer o progresso do grupo e da sociedade resulta no beneficiamento do próprio agente. Objetivos são mais facilmente alcançados com a ajuda de outros, ao mesmo tempo que há melhora na qualidade das relações sociais. Alguns fatores influenciam o comportamento altruísta, o estresse é um deles; a indução aguda de estresse pode ser eficiente em verificar comportamentos a curto prazo em laboratório, apesar de não haver consenso de que maneira este modifica as intenções de ajuda e o comportamento prósocial. O estresse também pode influenciar a maneira como avaliamos a distribuição de dinheiro ou bens feita por outrem: percepção de justiça. O Jogo do Ditador mostrase eficiente para analisar altruísmo e percepção de justiça, assim como o cortisol salivar se mostra capaz em auxiliar a análise do estresse agudo. Este trabalho avaliou em 94 estudantes universitários, de diversos cursos da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, se a indução de estresse agudo via tarefa de estresse social (T rier Social Stress Task ) relacionase a comportamentos altruístas e maior avaliação negativa para divisões injustas de dinheiro em dois jogos do ditador computadorizados a interação em ambos foi com desconhecidos. Os grupos foram divididos em dois sexos e em duas condições: experimental estresse e controle placebo. O dinheiro fictício usado para jogar foi ganho em uma tarefa de planejamento, executada em seguida da indução de estresse. Este foi mensurado por duas medidas fisiológicas: batimentos cardíacos e coleta de saliva para análise de cortisol; e por resposta de autoavaliação de ansiedade; as sessões duraram 60 minutos. Não foram encontradas correlações entre medidas fisiológicas e tomada de decisão egoísta, entretanto, encontrouse diferenças estatísticas significativas comportamentais entre os grupos: mulheres do grupo de controle são mais altruístas, quando dividem montantes mais altos de dinheiro; o grupo experimental avaliou como mais injustas ofertas egoístas (menor parte para ele(a)) do montante mais baixo e também como menos injustas ofertas altruístas (maior parte para ele(a)) do montante mais alto; os grupos também diferiram significativamente na oferta de divisão feita a desconhecidos; ademais, o grupo experimental levou mais tempo para iniciar a tarefa de planejamento do que o controle para ambos sexos. Concluise que medidas fisiológicas não se relacionam aos resultados pósestresse, porém diferenças comportamentais podem ser analisadas. Inferese que mulheres tem comportamentos mais altruístas por influência cultural. Percepção de justiça aumentada, comportamento egoísta e aumento do tempo de preparação na tarefa de planejamento podem ser o resultado do aumento da carga cognitiva por efeito da indução de estresse. / Altruism is an important behavioral construct in social relations; even though it appears to be no immediate gain in selfless actions. The purpose of promoting the group's and society’s progress results in the agent's own benefit. Goals are more easily achieved with the help of others, while there is improvement in the quality of social relations. Some factors have influence in altruistic behavior, stress is one of them; inducing acute stress can be effective in checking behaviors in imediate reaction in the laboratory, although there is no consensus on how this modifies intentions to help others and prosocial behavior. Stress can also influence how we evaluate the distribution of cash or goods made by others: perception of justice. The Dictator Game proves efficient to analize altruism and sense of justice, and salivary cortisol has shown able to assist in the analysis of acute stress. This study evaluated the impact of acute stress induction on 94 university students of different graduation courses of the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul. Acute stress was induced via social stress task (Trier Social Stress Task) to identify if it relates to altruistic behavior and the negative assessment to unfair money distribution in two computerized dictator games. The subjects in both games were unknown to each other. Subjects were divided by sex and than two groups: experimental stress condition and control placebo condition. The fictitious money used to play was won in a planning task, followed by the stress induction. The impact was measured by two physiological metrics: heart rate and saliva collection for cortisol analysis; and the selfassessment test of anxiety. Each individual sessions lasted 60 minutes. Correlations between physiological measurements and the making of selfish decision were not found. However, significant statistical behaviors differences were found between: the control group of women who were more altruistic when dividing larger amounts of money; t he experimental group evaluated selfish money offers as more unfair in the lower cash amount experiment (lower share for him/her). We also found as less unfair the altruistic offers made on the experiment’s larger cash amount (highest share for him/her). The groups also differ significantly in the division of money made to unknown individuals; in addition, the experimental group took longer to start the planning task than the control group for both sexes. We conclude that physiological measures are not related to poststress results, but behavioral differences can be analyzed. It appears that women tend to be more altruistic because of cultural influence. Increased perception of justice, selfish behavior and longer time taking to plan the planning task can be the result of increased cognitive overload as a result of induction of stress.

abstract: Immigration courts fail to live up to courtroom ideals. Around 2009, proposals were offered to address the problems of these troubled courts. My study illustrates the inevitable linkage between court reform proposals and conceptions of fairness and efficiency, and ultimately justice. I ask: (1) From the perspective of attorneys defending immigrants' rights, what are the obstacles to justice? How should they be addressed? And (2) How do proposals speak to these attorneys' concerns and proposed resolutions? The proposals reviewed generally favor restructuring the court. On the other hand, immigration (cause) lawyers remain unconvinced that current proposals to reform the courts' structure would be successful at addressing the pivotal issues of these courts: confounding laws and problematic personnel. They are particularly concerned about the legal needs and rights of immigrants and how reforms may affect their current and potential clients. With this in mind, they prefer incremental changes - such as extending pro bono programs - to the system. These findings suggest the importance of professional location in conceptualizing justice through law. They offer rich ground for theorizing about courts and politics, and justice in immigration adjudication. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Justice Studies 2013

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Para John Rawls, uma sociedade justa Ã, em princÃpio, uma comunidade polÃtica onde prevalecem a cooperaÃÃo, o senso de justiÃa e as virtudes da cidadania. Sua teoria apresenta princÃpios de justiÃa, que servirÃo de fundamento para uma estrutura bÃsica social bem-ordenada, na qual cada cidadÃo age justamente e contribui para a manutenÃÃo de instituiÃÃes justas. Para Robert Nozick, porÃm, um Estado justo em relaÃÃo aos seus cidadÃos nada mais à do que um Estado que respeita a conduta individual. O autor afirma que um Estado nÃo tem o direito de forÃar uma pessoa mais privilegiada a contribuir com um menos favorecido a fim de que este tenha seu bem-estar aumentado. Se vocà for forÃado, seja pelo Estado, seja por alguÃm, a contribuir para o bem-estar de terceiros, seus direitos estarÃo sendo violados. Diante disso, Nozick afirma que o Estado MÃnimo à o mais extenso que se pode justificar. Qualquer outro mais amplo viola os direitos dos cidadÃos. / For John Rawls, a fair society, at first, is a political community where there is the prevalence of cooperation, sense of justice and citizenship virtues. His theory presents the principles of justice, which will be the basis for a well-organized social basic structure in which each citizen acts with justice and contributes for the maintenance of fair institutions. However, for Robert Nozick a fair State with its citizens is a State that respects the individual behavior. The author says that a State does not have right of force a person more privileged to contribute with a less privileged in order to this has increased his well-being. If you are forced, or by State, or by any person, to contribute to well-being of third party, your rights are violated. Like this, Nozick says that the Minimal State is the most extensive that we can justify. Any other wider violate the citizensâ rights.

A obrigação política é interpretada como um problema de cooperação. Inicialmente rejeita-se a idéia de que a cooperação sempre emerge do equilíbrio de ações autointeressadas. Discutindo alguns dos mais conhecidos princípios morais para a obrigação política são rejeitadas princípios verticais, como a gratidão e o consentimento, e alguns princípios horizontais, como dever natural e deveres associativos. Defende-se, por fim a equidade como um princípio moral capaz de dar sentido à obrigação política entendida como requisito de uma sociedade entendida como um empreendimento cooperativo. / Political obligation is treated as a cooperation problem. At first, an account that cooperation always emerges as equilibrium of self-interested actions is rejected. Discussing some of most popular moral principles of political obligations, we reject vertical principles, as gratitude and consent, and some horizontal principles, like associative and natural duty, that are not centered in the idea of society as cooperation. Finally, the principle of fairness is defended as the most adequate moral principle to make sense of political obligation as requisite of a society understood as a cooperative venture.

Presented through the lens of the Theory of Relative Deprivation (Tajfel & Turner, 1986), this thesis aims to establish and quantify the link between inaccessibility in online contexts for people with low-vision or blindness, and the psychosocial impacts that may be associated with this inaccessibility. As there is existing research on this topic with elderly participants (Lagacé, Charmarkeh, Zaky, & Firzly, 2016), the focus for this research was working-aged people. The following research questions were addressed: 1) Does perceived lack of internet accessibility lead to perceptions of unfairness among low-vision or blind individuals? 2) In turn, do perceptions of unfairness negatively impact their level of self-esteem, and civic engagement? The hypothesized results were modeled as lower levels of perceived access lead to lower levels of perceived fairness, which in turn, lower the levels of civic engagement and self- esteem. Using a sample of 69 participants between the ages of 21-65, a self-report questionnaire was administered. It was found that perceived fairness was correlated on three of four scale items with self-esteem levels; the perception of fairness was not correlated with civic engagement; civic engagement and self-esteem were significantly correlated; and perceived access was correlated with levels of self-esteem.

Abstract The aim of this thesis is to devise novel co-primary spectrum sharing (CoPSS) methods for future fifth generation (5G) networks and beyond. The target is to improve data rates of small cell networks (SCNs) in which mobile network operators (MNOs) share their dedicated frequency spectrum (spectrum pooling) or a common spectrum (mutual renting). The performance of the proposed methods is assessed through extensive system-level simulations. MNOs typically acquire exclusive usage rights for certain frequency bands and have little incentive to share spectrums with other operators. However, due to higher cost and spectrum scarcity at lower frequencies it is expected that efficient use of the spectrum in 5G networks will rely more on spectrum sharing than exclusive licenses. This is especially true for new higher candidate frequencies (> 6 GHz) that do not have a pre-existing spectrum regulation framework. In the first part of the thesis, we tackle the challenge of providing higher data rates within limited spectral resources. Each SCN MNO has its own dedicated spectrum, and each MNO defines a percentage of how much its spectrum it is willing to share. The idea of the proposed CoPSS algorithms is that the spectrum is dynamically shared among MNOs based on their spectrum utilization, which is shared among MNOs in the network. This way interference can be avoided and spectrum utilization is maximized. Unused resources are shared equally between overloaded MNOs for a given time instant. Thus, only short-term fairness among overloaded SCNs can be guaranteed. In the second part, we consider a multi-operator small cell network where MNOs share a common pool of radio resources. The goal is to ensure the long term fairness of spectrum sharing without coordination among small cell base stations. We develop a decentralized control mechanism for base stations using the Gibbs sampling based learning tool, which allocates suitable amount of the spectrum for each base station while avoiding interference from SCNs and maximizing the total network throughput. In the studied scenarios, we show the importance of coordination among MNOs when the dedicated spectrum is shared. However, when MNOs share a common spectrum, a decentralized control mechanism can be used to allocate suitable amounts of spectrum for each base station. The proposed algorithms are shown to be effective for different network layouts, by achieving significant data rate enhancements with a low overhead. / Tiivistelmä Tämä väitöskirja keskittyy kehittämään uusia menetelmiä, joilla jaetaan taajuuksia useiden operaattoreiden kesken tulevista viidennen sukupolven verkoista alkaen. Päätavoite on parantaa tiedonsiirtonopeuksia sellaisissa piensoluverkoissa, joissa matkapuhelinoperaattorit jakavat joko heidän omia taajuusalueitaan tai heillä yhteisomistuksessa olevia taajuuksia. Kehitettyjen menetelmien suorituskykyä arvioidaan mittavien järjestelmätason simulointien avulla. Matkapuhelinoperaattorit tyypillisesti omistavat yksin tietyt taajuusalueet, eivätkä ole valmiita jakamaan niitä. On kuitenkin oletettu, että tulevaisuudessa matkapuhelinoperaattorit joutuvat jakamaan taajuuksia, koska taajuusalueet ovat kalliita ja niukkoja erityisesti matalilla taajuusalueilla. Korkeammat taajuusalueet (> 6 GHz) puolestaan muodostavat otollisen alustan tehokkaalle spektrin jaetulle käytölle, koska niillä ei ole vielä olemassa olevaa taajuussääntelyä. Väitöskirjan ensimmäisessä osassa keskitytään kasvattamaan tiedonsiirtonopeuksia kun jokainen matkapuhelinoperaattori omistaa oman taajuuskaistansa ja matkapuhelinoperaattorit määrittävät kuinka suuren prosentuaalisen osuuden ovat valmiita jakamaan. Esitettyjen algoritmien päätavoite on jakaa taajuuksia dynaamisesti matkapuhelinoperaattoreiden kesken. Algoritmeissa hyödynnetään tietoa matkapuhelinoperaattoreiden taajuuden käyttöasteesta, jonka matkapuhelinoperaattoritkommunikoivat toisilleen. Näin häiriö voidaan välttää ja taajuuden käyttö maksimoidaan. Käyttämättömät taajuudet jaetaan tasaisesti matkapuhelinoperaattorien kesken tietyllä ajanhetkellä. Näin voidaan taata lyhytaikainen oikeudenmukainen taajuuksien käyttö, mutta ei pitkäaikaista oikeudenmukaista taajuuksien käyttöä. Väitöskirjan toisessa osassa matkapuhelinoperaattorit jakavat yhteisomistuksessa olevia taajuuksia. Tavoitteena on saavuttaa pitkäaikainen taajuuksien oikeudenmukainen käyttö, kun piensoluverkot eivät kommunikoi keskenään. Työssä kehitetään piensoluverkoille hajautettu algoritmi, joka perustuu oppimistyökaluun Gibbs-näytteistys. Näin saadaan allokoitua jokaiselle tukiasemalle tarvittava määrä taajuusresursseja niin, että häiriö tukiasemien välillä minimoidaan ja koko piensoluverkon suorituskyky maksimoidaan. Tutkituissa skenaarioissa osoitetaan matkapuhelinoperaattoreiden välisen koordinaation tärkeys, kun jaetaan omia taajuusalueita. Toisaalta kun operaattorit jakavat yhteisomistuksessa olevia taajuuksia on mahdollista käyttää algoritmeja, joissa ei ole koordinaatiota matkapuhelinoperaattoreiden kesken. Väitöskirjassa vahvistetaan kehitettyjen algoritmien olevan tehokkaita ja sopivan monenlaisiin verkkoympäristöihin saavuttaen merkittäviä parannuksia tiedonsiirtonopeuteen ilman suuria kustannuksia.

The purpose of the study is to analyse tax reform measures to secure the tax revenue base, in particular the personal income tax structure of South Africa. The main objectives are: firstly, to identify personal income tax reform interventions so as to align the personal income tax structure in South Africa with international best practices. Secondly, the impact of tax reforms on revenue collection, given optimal economic growth levels, is determined. Thirdly, to determine the best tax reform scenario which could minimise the individual tax burden and maximise its efficiency. Lastly, the impact of the suggested tax reforms on fairness as a principle of a good tax system is evaluated. A static micro-simulation model is developed from survey data and used to simulate the proposed tax reforms. Different tax reforms were selected from a study of international tax reform trends and an analysis of the South African personal income tax structure. The literature provides clear margins for the structuring of tax bands and threshold margins. Tax elasticities are estimated in order to explain the methodology for determining the impact of tax reforms. These elasticities include the elasticities for determining the progressiveness of the PIT structure, determining the deadweight loss (tax efficiency) and also to determine the optimal levels of taxes and economic growth and revenue maximisation. The different tax reform scenarios take the economy closer to or further away from optimum growth and optimum revenue. The results show that as far as marginal rates are concerned, a lowering in rates to levels on par with South Africa’s peers offers potential for improved levels of efficiency with the tax burden equal to or even below the optimal tax ratio from an economic growth point of view. Although such a ratio is below the optimal revenue ratio the results suggest that the loss in revenue could be minimised over time through a resultant increase in productivity and economic growth. By adjusting the non-taxable thresholds and taxable income bands according to the algorithm defined in the best practice scenario, more taxpayers will be included into the tax net but with a net decrease in tax liability. As a result the tax/GDP level also declines to a level below the optimal growth level but tax efficiency increases. The resultant loss in revenue will have to be recouped through increases in other than individual income taxes but improved levels of tax morality because of the lower margins for each tax band and increased productivity might also contribute to increased revenue performance. The tax structure is also more progressive which contributes towards the “fairness” of the tax regime. Regarding tax expenditure reforms, the analysis shows that medical tax credits offer a more equitable form of relief than medical deductions which substantiate this kind of reform as already implemented by government and which is to be fully phased in over the next couple of years. Tax liability is slightly lower in the case of medical credits compared to medical deductions but the difference is only marginal as far as net revenue and optimal growth and efficiency is concerned. However, a medical credit which increases disposable income at the lower end of the scale and discriminates against higher income groups also improves progressiveness of the tax regime and therefore the fairness thereof accordingly. Finally, the demographic impact of the suggested reforms also shows some important trends. Better education improves skills levels which seems to be positively correlated to taxable income levels. As far as age is concerned, the analysis shows that a substantial number of taxpayers in the categories below the age of 24 and above 65 fall within the lower taxable income groups. Those are also the most vulnerable groups from a subsistence point of view. Thus, tax reform that specifically improves their levels of disposable income should be prioritised in order to address equity and fairness as objectives for a “good” tax structure. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2014. / gm2014 / Economics / Unrestricted

Adaptive governance must work "on the ground," that is, it must operate through structures and procedures that the people it governs perceive to be legitimate and fair, as well as incorporating processes and substantive goals that are effective in allowing social-ecological systems (SESs) to adapt to climate change and other impacts. To address the continuing and accelerating alterations that climate change is bringing to SESs, adaptive governance generally will require more flexibility than prior governance institutions have often allowed. However, to function as good governance, adaptive governance must pay real attention to the problem of how to balance this increased need for flexibility with continuing governance stability so that it can foster adaptation to change without being perceived or experienced as perpetually destabilizing, disruptive, and unfair. Flexibility and stability serve different purposes in governance, and a variety of tools exist to strike different balances between them while still preserving the governance institution's legitimacy among the people governed. After reviewing those purposes and the implications of climate change for environmental governance, we examine psychological insights into the structuring of adaptive governance and the variety of legal tools available to incorporate those insights into adaptive governance regimes. Because the substantive goals of governance systems will differ among specific systems, we do not purport to comment on what the normative or substantive goals of law should be. Instead, we conclude that attention to process and procedure (including participation), as well as increased use of substantive standards (instead of rules), may allow an increased level of substantive flexibility to operate with legitimacy and fairness, providing the requisite levels of psychological, social, and economic stability needed for communities to adapt successfully to the Anthropocene.

This thesis investigates the short and long-term effects of pay dispersion on firm performance in publicly listed Swedish firms. Pay dispersion refers to the difference in compensation between or within organizational levels. There are two contradicting theoretical views of pay dispersions effect on firm performance. While tournament theory suggests that high pay dispersion increase employees’ incentives to exert higher effort, thus increasing firm performance, fairness approaches predicts that high pay dispersion creates feelings of unfairness, thus negatively affecting firm performance. Based on these theories and previous research, Hypothesis 1 predicts a positive short-term effect of pay dispersion on firm performance, and Hypothesis 2 predicts a negative long-term effect of pay dispersion on firm performance. Using a first differences fixed-effects regression including controls for firm characteristics and corporate governance indicators, three measures of pay dispersion are tested on two proxies for firm performance (price to book and return on assets). We conclude after extensive robustness tests that pay dispersion has no effect on firm performance, neither on short nor on long-term. Therefore, both hypotheses are rejected.