Energy demand has grown due to the pressures caused by the emission control of greenhouse gases and due to oil exploration and its derivatives as an energy source. An alternative to reduce emissions of gases that cause the greenhouse effect is mix ethanol in gasoline to oxygenated. The worldwide increase generated by the demand for ethanol requires the search for alternative processes for implementation of ethanol production. An alternative is the fermentation of lignocellulosic biomass to bioethanol production. The degree of complexity involved in the structure and composition of the lignocellulosic biomass; and the availability of sugars present in cellulose and hemicellulose require pre-treatment processes in the production of lignocellulosic ethanol. The steps involved in the conversion of sugars to ethanol are pre-treatment, enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation of the hydrolyzate. This work shows the results related to fermentability of pre-treated and hydrolyzed biomass Opuntia ficus-indica in order to compare the efficiency of industrial strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Kluyveromyces marxianus for ethanol production. In the methodology, it was employed an experimental design 2³ in order to obtain the best condition by the variables investigated concentration of acid (0.5%, 1.0%) pre-treatment time (30 min, 60 min) and the amount of mass (1g, 2g). The pre-treatment under the condition of 1.0% of sulfuric acid for 30 minutes with 2g of biomass was the best result, being the chosen condition to follow the enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation steps. Ethanol production in the fermentation was 5.85 g L-1 with S. cerevisiae, 5.15 g L-1 at K.marxinus and 5.74 g L-1 with the process conducted with the two species. The consumption of reducing sugars during the fermentation stage were similar for the three fermentation conditions. / A exigência energética tem crescido devido às pressões provocadas pelo controle da emissão de gases do efeito estufa devido à exploração de petróleo e seus derivados como fonte de energia. Uma alternativa para redução da emissão de gases causadores do efeito estufa é a mistura do etanol na gasolina com agente antidetonante. O incremento mundial gerado pela demanda por etanol requer a busca por processos alternativos para implementação da produção. Uma alternativa é a fermentação da biomassa lignocelulósica para produção de bioetanol. O grau de complexidade envolvido na estrutura e composição da biomassa lignocelulósica; e a disponibilização dos açúcares presentes na celulose e hemicelulose requerem processos de pré-tratamento na produção de etanol lignocelulósico. As etapas envolvidas na conversão dos açúcares em etanol são: pré-tratamento, hidrólise enzimática e fermentação do hidrolisado. Nesse trabalho foi verificado a fermentabilidade da biomassa Opuntia fícus-indica pré-tratada e hidrolisada visando comparar a eficiência das cepas industriais de Saccharomyces cerevisiae e Kluyveromyces marxianus para produção de etanol. Na metodologia empregou-se um planejamento experimental 23 visando obter a melhor condição investigada através das variáveis: concentração de ácido (0,5%, 1,0%), tempo do pré-tratamento (30min, 60min) e quantidade de massa (1g, 2g). Os melhores resultados foram encontrados no pré-tratamento na condição de 1,0% de ácido sulfúrico por 30 minutos com 2g de biomassa, sendo a condição escolhida para seguir as etapas de hidrólise enzimática e fermentação. A produção de etanol nas fermentações foi de 5,85 g L-1 com S. cerevisiae, 5,15 g L-1 com K.marxinus e 5,74 g L-1 com processo conduzido com a duas espécies. O consumo de açúcares redutores durante a etapa de fermentação foi similar para as três condições de fermentação.

Resumo: No presente trabalho determinou-se no primeiro capítulo o crescimento através dos parâmetros: diâmetro do ramo, comprimento do ramo, número de folhas, número de entrenós e número de frutos a cada 21 dias, em plantas da figueira 'Roxo de Valinhos' utilizando cobertura morta, composta por bagaço de cana-de-açúcar triturado, e irrigação, na área experimental do Departamento de Produção Vegetal da Faculdade de Ciências Agronômicas da UNESP, Campus de Botucatu-SP. E no segundo capítulo objetivou-se avaliar o tempo de translocação, a relação fonte-dreno nos diferentes órgãos bem como, saber em que órgão se encontraria o carbono-13 após determinados intervalos de tempo, em plantas em estádio reprodutivo e em formação da espécie Ficus carica L. Para tanto, uma folha da figueira considerada adulta através da caracterização fotossintética com um medidor portátil de fotossíntese IRGA-6400, foi colocada dentro de uma câmara de acrílico construída para este fim, e submetida a um ambiente com enriquecimento de 13CO2 por 30 minutos. No experimento tempo de alocação, as plantas de Ficus carica L. foram arrancadas ao longo das horas: 6, 24, 48, 72, 120, 168, 360. Após o tempo especificado as partes (meristema apical, folhas, ramos, caule e sistema radicular) das plantas em estudo foram coletados e imediatamente imersos em nitrogênio líquido (-196 ºC), para evitar que os tecidos permanecessem vivos e conseqüentemente pudessem consumir os fotoassimilados no processo da respiração. As amostras, previamente identificadas foram secas em estufa de circulação forçada a 65º C por 72 horas, em seguida moídas em moinho criogênico, para que houvesse uma perfeita homogeneização, sendo posteriormente analisadas no espectrômetro de massas de razão isotópica, para a determinação do enriquecimento relativo de 13C. Naturalmente a planta apresenta valores ... / Abstract: In this study determined the growth in the first experiment using the parameters: diameter branch, length branch, leaf number, number of internodes and number of fruit every 21 days, plant the fig tree 'Roxo de Valinhos' mulch using, composed of lither sugar cane, and irrigation in the experimental area in the Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, State University of São Paulo. In the second experiment it planned be quizzed, the time of the translocation and allocation of fotoassimilados, as well as, evaluate the relation spring-drain in the different organs like well as, know in that organ would be found the carbon-13 after determined breaks of time, in plants in reproductive stadium of the sort Ficus carica L. A fig tree leaf considered adult through the photosynthetic with a portable meter of photosynthesis IRGA-6400 characterization. Was put inside a acrylic chamber, and submitted to an environment with 13CO2 enrichment for 30 minutes. In experiment time allocation, where the plants of Ficus carica L. were lurches to the long one of the hours: 6, 24, 48, 72, 120, 168, 360. After the time specified the studied plant parts (meristem, sheets, branches, stem and system roots) were collected and immediately immersed in liquid nitrogen (-196 ºC), for avoid that the fabrics remained alive and consequently could consume the fhotosynthates in the breath trial. The samples, previously identified were droughts in of circulation forced to 65º C for 72 hours, right away ground in cryogenic mill, for that had a perfect homogenization, being subsequently analyzed in the mass spectrometry of isotopic reason, for the relative enrichment 13C determination. . Naturally the plant presents values of 13C relative enrichment of -27.92 ‰, allocating more than 90% of the dry mass and the total carbon in the woody part. The results obtained indicated that fig tree 'Roxo de ... / Orientador: Sarita Leonel / Coorientador: Carlos Ducatti / Banca: José Albertino Bendassolli / Banca: Carmen Silvia Fernandes Boaro / Banca: Erval Rafael Damatto Júnior / Banca:Antonio Evaldo Klar / Doutor

Five techniques were used to predict the potential biogeography of the four alien plant species, Acacia longifolia, Acacia mearnsii, Opuntia ficus-indica and Solanum sisymbrifolium. Prediction was based on five environmental factors, median annual rainfall, co-efficient of variation for rainfall, mean monthly maximum temperature for January, mean monthly minimum temperature for July and elevation. A geographical information system was used to manage the data and produce the predictive maps. The models were constructed with presence and absence data and then validated by means of an independent data set and chisquared tests. Of the five models used, three (the range, principal components analysis and discriminant function analysis) were linear while the other two (artificial neural networks and fuzzy logic) were non-linear. The two non-linear techniques were chosen as a plant's response to its environment is commonly assumed to be non-linear. However, these two techniques did not offer significant advantages over the linear methods. The principal components analysis was particularly useful in ascertaining the variables that were important in determining the distribution of each species. Artifacts on the predictive maps were also proved useful for this purpose. The techniques that produced the most statistically accurate validation results were the artificial neural networks (77% correct median prediction rate) and the discriminant function analysis (71% correct median prediction rate) while the techniques that performed the worst were the range and the fuzzy classification. The artificial neural network, discriminant function analysis and principal component analysis techniques all show great potential as predictive distribution models.

In the current context of rapid and discontinuous changes, technological innovation assumes a preponderant role in generating wealth for nations. Recent scientific research highlights the important role that the Forage Palm (Opuntia ficus-indica) can play, both in traditional activities such as human and animal feeding, and in advanced applications such as medicine and pharmacology, nutrition, chemical engineering, biotechnology and water and soil treatment. The aim of this study is to survey the technological innovation potential associated with the Forage Palm. This is a qualitative study, which uses research on the basis of scientific publications and patents, with the purpose of conducting a technological survey. The searches were carried out at the bases SCOPUS (Elsevier) and PATENTSCOPE (WIPO). The searches were carried out at the SCOPUS (Elsevier), WEB OF SCIENCE and SCIENCE DIRECT bases, for scientific articles, and PATENTSCOPE (WIPO), ESPACENET (EPO) and INPI, for patents. The results indicate that the Forage Palm presents a high potential to be incorporated in technological innovation projects, given its structural characteristics and possibilities of use in several applications, as well as its employment as an economic alternative to contribute to the improvement of the living conditions of the population that inhabits the Brazilian semi-arid. / No atual contexto de rápidas e descontínuas mudanças, a inovação tecnológica assume papel preponderante na geração de riquezas para as nações. Pesquisas científicas recentes evidenciam o papel relevante que a Palma Forrageira (Opuntia ficus-indica) pode desempenhar, tanto em atividades tradicionais como alimentação humana e de animais, quanto em aplicações avançadas, como medicina e farmacologia, nutrição, engenharia química, biotecnologia e tratamento da água e dos solos. O objetivo deste estudo envolve o levantamento de potencialidades de inovação tecnológica associadas com a Palma Forrageira. Trata-se de um estudo qualitativo, que utiliza pesquisas em bases de publicações científicas e de patentes, com o propósito de realizar uma prospecção tecnológica. As buscas foram realizadas nas bases SCOPUS (Elsevier), WEB OF SCIENCE e SCIENCE DIRECT, para artigos científicos, e PATENTSCOPE (WIPO), ESPACENET (EPO) e INPI, para patentes. Os resultados encontrados indicam que a Palma Forrageira apresenta elevado potencial para ser incorporada em projetos de inovação tecnológica, dadas suas características estruturais e possibilidades de utilização em diversas aplicações, bem como seu emprego como alternativa econômica para contribuir com a melhoria das condições de vida da população que habita o semiárido brasileiro.

El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo optimizar el método de extracción del mucílago del nopal (Opuntia ficus-indica var. Forrajera) y estudiar su potencial utilización como formador de recubrimientos comestibles. Como tal, se ha aplicado en un producto vegetal cortado: la jícama. Para cubrir este objetivo se ha realizado una caracterización del mucílago extraído por diferentes procedimientos, que ha puesto de manifiesto la influencia de dicho método en las características químicas (macro y microcomponentes) y físicas (comportamiento reológico, color, solubilidad) de los extractos. El procedimiento que incluye el escaldado de la penca pelada y molida fue el que dio un producto con mejores características para su uso como recubrimiento, por presentar mayor poder espesante (mayor peso molecular promedio), por ser su solubilidad menos sensible al pH y presentar mejor color. El mucílago extraído por el procedimiento seleccionado se caracterizó en cuanto a su interacción con el agua mediante la obtención de la isoterma de sorción y la relación temperatura de transición vítrea-humedad. Además, se estudió su capacidad formadora de films evaluando las propiedades de barrera al vapor de agua, solubilidad, las propiedades mecánicas y las propiedades ópticas (color, translucidez y brillo) a tres humedades de equilibrio diferentes. Así mismo, se evaluó el efecto de la adición de lípidos (ácido oleico o esteárico) en diferente proporción en las propiedades anteriores. Los resultados obtenidos mostraron que el ácido oleico permite obtener films con mejores propiedades mecánicas y de barrera al vapor de agua, aunque imparte una cierta tonalidad amarillenta al film. Las formulaciones con ácido oleico fueron evaluadas como recubrimientos en cubos de jícama. Ninguna formulación supuso una reducción de la pérdida de agua del producto durante su almacenamiento a 4 ºC y 85 % de humedad relativa, pero si se evitó la perdida de firmeza. / Abraján Villaseñor, MA. (2008). Efecto del método de extracción en las características químicas y físicas del mucílago del nopal (Opuntia ficus-índica) y estudio de su aplicación como recubrimiento comestible [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/3794

Dans un contexte général de valorisation alimentaire et non alimentaire du figuier de barbarie, nous nous sommes intéressés lors de cette étude à l'analyse morphologique de la pelure et des graines du fruit. Les polysaccharides pariétaux des différentes parois ont été isolés, purifiés, et leurs caractérisations ont été réalisées grâce aux méthodes chimiques ainsi qu'à la RMN haute résolution (1H et 13C) et en phase solide (CP/MAS). L'autre aspect du travail décrit la modification chimique des microfibrilles de cellulose. Il traite, dans un premier temps, de l'oxydation de la cellulose par le système TEMPO-NaOCl-NaBr et les conditions opératoires ont été optimisées dans le but de préparer des échantillons d'acide polyglucuroniques. La seconde étape met l'accent sur le greffage, via un couplage peptidique, du poly-N-isopropylacrylamide en vue d'élaborer des biopolymères thermostimulables à partir de la cellulose oxydée.

Obligate nursery pollination mutualisms such as the fig–fig wasp system, with their central plant–pollinator mutualism associated with non-pollinating satellite wasp species, can function as closed system microcosms representative of tritrophic communities. In this system, enclosed inflorescences (syconia) function as sites of seed production, as well as brood-sites for the progeny of herbivorous mutualistic pollinators, non-pollinating gallers and parasitoids of the two. Plant reproductive traits such as inflorescence size (syconium volume) and within-plant phenology (within-tree asynchrony) as can affect inter-species relationships among the three trophic levels in such plant–herbivore–parasitoid systems. Induced or natural variations in such plant traits could influence various direct and indirect effects among the organisms in the community and could even lead to the formation of feedback cycles. Furthermore, changes in the abiotic environment could have major impacts on the biotic associations in the system either by affecting the community members directly, or through their effects on plant reproductive traits. Ficus racemosa with its fig wasp community comprised of a single herbivorous pollinator mutualist, three non-pollinating parasitic gallers and three non-pollinating parasitoids was used as a model to investigate: (1) the role of mutualistic and parasitic fig wasps in affecting within-tree phenology; (2) direct and indirect biotic associations between various groups of fig wasps (pollinators, gallers and parasitoids) and the influence of inflorescence size and within-tree phenology on them; and (3) variations in the reproduction of and the biotic associations between the organisms of the community under variable abiotic climatic conditions. Patterns of plant reproductive phenology are usually considered evolved responses directed at optimizing resource use, pollen receipt/donation schedules and seed dispersal for plant individuals. Within-plant reproductive synchrony or asynchrony can arise due to variation in floral initiation patterns, as well as from localised proximate mechanistic responses to interactants such as pollinators, parasites and herbivores which could affect floral longevity or fruit development time. The investigation was begun by exploring the role of a mutualistic pollinator, and for the first time in a brood-site mutualism, that of parasitic herbivores (gallers) and parasitoids in influencing within-plant reproductive phenology. Since a syconium functions as an inflorescence which develops into a fruit after pollination, investigations were carried out on the impact on syconium synchrony of fig wasps that began their development within the brood site syconium at pre-pollination, pollination, and post-pollination stages via their effects on the development time of individual syconia in Ficus racemosa. We found that syconium initiation patterns were not the only proximate mechanism for within-tree reproductive asynchrony, and that individual syconia (even within a tree) had highly plastic development times dependent on their sizes, pollination time and the species of wasp progeny developing within them. Syconium volume, pollination early in the pollen-receptive phase and presence of early-ovipositing galler progeny reduced syconium development time, whereas the presence of late-ovipositing parasitoid progeny or pollination late in the pollen-receptive phase increased syconium development time. These results suggest an ongoing tug-of-war between syconium inhabitants to modify syconium development times. Parasitic fig wasps pull in different directions to suit their own needs, such that final syconium development times are likely to be a compromise between conflicting demands from developing seeds and from different wasp species. Inter-species relationships among the three trophic levels in plant–herbivore–parasitoid systems can potentially include various direct and indirect effects possibly mediated by induced or natural variations in plant traits. Analysing the seed and fig wasp compositions of microcosm replicates, i.e. individual syconia, shows that besides direct competition for resources and predator–prey interactions, the F. racemosa community also displays exploitative or apparent competition and trait-mediated indirect interactions. Syconium volume and within-tree asynchrony were reproductive plant traits that not only affected plant–herbivore and plant–parasitoid associations, but also possibly modified herbivore–herbivore and herbivore–parasitoid interactions. Our results also indicated that the reciprocal effects of higher trophic level fauna on plant traits (and vice versa) within this system drive a positive feedback cycle between syconium inhabitants and within-tree reproductive asynchrony. In the F. racemosa system, abiotic environmental factors could affect the reproduction of mutualistic pollinators, non-mutualistic parasites and seed production via seasonal changes in plant reproductive traits such as syconium volume within-tree asynchrony. Temperature, relative humidity and rainfall defined four seasons: winter; hot days, cold nights; summer and wet seasons. Syconium volumes were highest in winter and lowest in summer, and affected syconium contents positively across all seasons. Greater transpiration from the nurseries was possibly responsible for smaller syconia in summer. The 3–5°C increase in mean temperatures between the cooler seasons and summer reduced fig wasp reproduction and increased seed production nearly two-fold. Yet, seed and pollinator progeny production were never negatively related in any season confirming the mutualistic fig–pollinator association across seasons. Parasites affected seed production negatively in some seasons, but had a surprisingly positive relationship with pollinators in most seasons. While within-tree reproductive phenology did not vary across seasons, its effect on syconium inhabitants varied with season. In all seasons, within-tree reproductive asynchrony affected parasite reproduction negatively, whereas it had a positive effect on pollinator reproduction in winter and a negative effect in summer. Seasonally variable syconium volumes probably caused the differential effect of within-tree reproductive phenology on pollinator reproduction. Within-tree reproductive asynchrony itself was positively affected by intra-tree variation in syconium contents and volume, creating a unique feedback loop which varied across seasons. Therefore, nursery size affected fig wasp reproduction, seed production and within-tree reproductive phenology via the feedback cycle in this system. Climatic factors affecting plant reproductive traits can cause biotic relationships between plants, mutualists and parasites to vary seasonally and must be accorded greater attention, especially in the context of climate change.

The research of this thesis will focus on the performance of farm forestry trees in Mubende district, Uganda. In order to this, the research will help to fill the existing knowledge gap on the performance of farm forestry trees of east Africa specially Uganda. The conducted tree species are Markhamia lutea, Ficus natalensis, Mangifera indica, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Anitaris toxicaria, Persea americana, Albizia coriaria and Spathodea campanulata. The selection of the trees was mainly driven through the availability of age information. The trees were measured in height, age, DBH, length of commercial stem, diameter at specific height and visual observations e.g. occurrence and stem quality. To compare the performance of the conducted tree species a regression analysis with eight different functions was carried out for each tree species. The results are reproducible Stand- Height-Curves, height curves, DBH curves and curves for the single tree volume. The decision on the best curve was made on their biological plausibility and their statistical calculations. Additionally, the farmers of the trees were interviewed about their tree species for e.g. purposes of the tree, value of the wood and their own impressions on the growth of the tree species. The recommendation for the best applicable function is the Petterson function for the Stand-Height- Curve and the function of Richards for the height-, DBH- and single tree volume curve. Still these functions shouldn’t be used without comparison to other functions, especially because the used functions were developed for tree stand conditions and not specially for agroforestry conditions were the tree growth is in general higher. Additionally, an upscaling and prediction of the monetary tree values is made on the basis of the single tree volume curves and the interview results. The prediction of the farmers possible income through the cultivation of trees is made for Markhamia lutea, Ficus natalensis, Anitaris toxicaria and Albizia coriaria and assumes that 100 trees are planted on one hectare. Albizia coriaria 3.630 € achieves the highest possible extra income for the farmer followed by Ficus natalensis with 1.300 €, Anitaris toxicaria with 910€ and Markhamia lutea with 880 €. This thesis gives an example on the performance and possible monetary value of tree species in Mubende district, Uganda. Further investigation is needed to fill the knowledge gap in the performance of east African tree species and their values completely. Keywords: performance, tree growth, utilization, Uganda, East-Africa