La fatigue de contact est un des modes de défaillance prédominants des composants tels que les engrenages ou les roulements. Les mécanismes d’initiation de fissures associés à ce mode de défaillance sont fortement liés à la microstructure du matériau. Cependant, la plupart des modèles utilisés pour prédire la durée de vie se situent à l’échelle macroscopique. Un modèle basé sur une représentation de type Voronoi des grains (échelle mésoscopique) est développé afin d’analyser les mécanismes d’initiation. Le concept d’endommagement est appliqué aux joints de grain modélisés par la méthode des zones cohésives. L’objectif de ce modèle est (i) de contribuer à une meilleure compréhension de l’influence de paramètres tels que ceux liés aux conditions de contact (rugosité, lubrification) ou aux matériaux (présence d’inclusions ou gradients de propriétés et contraintes résiduelles générés par les traitements de surface…) sur les mécanismes d’initiation et (ii) de fournir une estimation de la durée de vie jusqu’à cette initiation. Un premier modèle 2D isotrope a permis de mettre en place l’approche proposée et d’analyser le comportement numérique des éléments cohésifs : influence de la valeur des raideurs cohésives et apparition de singularités aux jonctions triples. Cette singularité semble inévitable, mais l’approche consistant à considérer le joint de grain comme une unique entité, et donc à utiliser des valeurs moyennes le long du joint de grain permet de s’affranchir de cette singularité. La représentativité du modèle a ensuite été améliorée par la modélisation de l’anisotropie cristalline. Un modèle de type élasticité cubique a été utilisé pour modéliser le comportement des grains. Enfin, une analyse approfondie de l’application du concept d’endommagement aux joints de grains a permis de proposer une nouvelle formulation entraînant une influence plus réaliste de cet endommagement sur le cisaillement intergranulaire et conduisant à une durée de vie estimée (apparition des premières micro-fissures) d’un ordre de grandeur comparable à celles données par l’expérience. / Contact fatigue is the predominant mode of failure of components subjected to a repeated contact pressure, like rolling element bearings or gears. This phenomenon is known as rolling contact fatigue (RCF). A large number of models have been developed to predict RCF, but there is today no complete predictive life model, and understanding RCF failure mechanism remains a significant challenge. RCF failure mechanisms are known to be very sensitive to a large number of parameters linked to contact conditions (roughness, lubrication) or materials (inclusions, gradients properties, residual stresses…). To improve knowledge about the influence of these parameters on failure mechanisms and life, a numerical model is developed to simulate the progressive damage of a component subject to rolling contact fatigue. Mechanisms associated with the initiation stage of failure process are located at a scale lower than the macroscopic scale. The proposed approach is to develop a grain level model (mesoscopic scale) in order to focus on initiation mechanisms. A Voronoi tessellation is used to represent the material microstructure. The progressive deterioration is simulated by applying the concept of damage mechanics at grain boundaries represented by cohesive elements. This approach has been first applied to a 2D isotropic model. The numerical behaviour of cohesive elements has been investigated: the influence of cohesive stiffness has been analysed and singularities at the triple junctions has been highlighted. The representativeness of the original model was improved by modelling crystal anisotropy. A cubic elasticity model was used to represent the behaviour of grains. Finally, a thorough analysis of the application of the damage concept at grain boundaries highlighted that the initial formulation results in a very low influence of the damage on the intergranular shear stress. A new formulation leading to a direct influence of the damage on the intergranular shear stress has been proposed. This new formulation has resulted in (i) a change in the distribution of micro-cracks, with coalescence between the different micro-cracks, and (ii) a large increase in the RCF life estimated by the model. The order of magnitude of the number of cycles corresponding to the first micro-cracks is comparable to that given by experiments.

Following the 22 February 2011, MW 6.2 earthquake located on a fault beneath the Port Hills of Christchurch, fissuring of up to several hundred metres in length was observed in the loess and loess-colluvium of foot-slope positions in north-facing valleys of the Port Hills. The fissuring was observed in all major valleys, occurred at similar low altitudes, showing a contour-parallel orientation and often accompanied by both lateral compression/extension features and spring formation in the valley floor below. Fissuring locations studied in depth included Bowenvale Valley, Hillsborough Valley, Huntlywood Terrace–Lucas Lane, Bridle Path Road, and Maffeys Road–La Costa Lane. Investigations into loess soil, its properties and mannerisms, as well as international examples of its failure were undertaken, including study of the Loess Plateau of China, the Teton Dam, and palaeo-fissuring on Banks Peninsula. These investigations lead to the conclusion that loess has the propensity to fail, often due to the infiltration of water, the presence of which can lead to its instantaneous disaggregation. Literature study and laboratory analysis of Port Hills loess concluded that is has the ability to be stable in steep, sub-vertical escarpments, and often has a sub-vertically jointed internal structure and has a peak shear strength when dry. Values for cohesion, c (kPa) and the internal friction angle, ϕ (degrees) of Port Hills loess were established. The c values for the 40 Rapaki Road, 3 Glenview Terrace loess samples were 13.4 kPa and 19.7 kPa, respectively. The corresponding ϕ values were thought unusually high, at 42.0° and 43.4°.The analysed loess behaved very plastically, with little or no peak strength visible in the plots as the test went almost directly to residual strength. A geophysics resistivity survey showed an area of low resistivity which likely corresponds to a zone of saturated clayey loess/loess colluvium, indicating a high water table in the area. This is consistent with the appearances of local springs which are located towards the northern end of each distinct section of fissure trace and chemical analysis shows that they are sourced from the Port Hills volcanics. Port Hills fissuring may be sub-divided into three categories, Category A, Category B, and Category C, each characterised by distinctive features of the fissures. Category A includes fissures which display evidence of, spring formation, tunnel-gullying, and lateral spreading-like behaviour or quasi-toppling. These fissures are several metres down-slope of the loess-bedrock interface, and are in valleys containing a loess-colluvium fill. Category B fissures are in wider valleys than those in Category A, and the valleys contain estuarine silty sediments which liquefied during the earthquake. Category C fissures occurred at higher elevations than the fissures in the preceding categories, being almost coincident with bedrock outcropping. It is believed that the mechanism responsible for causing the fissuring is a complex combination of three mechanisms: the trampoline effect, bedrock fracturing, and lateral spreading. These three mechanisms can be applied in varying degrees to each of the fissuring sites in categories A, B, and C, in order to provide explanation for the observations made at each. Toppling failure can describe the soil movement as a consequence of the a three causative mechanisms, and provides insight into the movement of the loess. Intra-loess water coursing and tunnel gullying is thought to have encouraged and exacerbated the fissuring, while not being the driving force per se. Incipient landsliding is considered to be the least likely of the possible fissuring interpretations.

Le principe de la maintenance conditionnelle consiste à évaluer en permanence l’intégrité des machines industrielles, à partir des mesures et de traitements du signal appropriés, afin d’intervenir uniquement au moment le plus opportun. Dans ce contexte, l’objectif de cette thèse est de développer une technique de détection, aussi précoce que possible, de l’amorce de dégradation lente d’une structure vibrante, telle que les fissures de fatigue, pour éviter toute défaillance inattendue des machines. Notre approche se base sur les données mesurées à l’aide de deux moyens expérimentaux mis en œuvre au laboratoire. L’étude a démarré avec une poutre encastrée-libre sollicitée en flexion et s’est poursuivie sur un banc d’essais plus représentatif de la problématique industrielle. Dans les deux cas, l'endommagement de la structure a été naturel et progressif, depuis un état réputé sain jusqu’à l’apparition de la fissure. Le comportement dynamique a été suivi à l’aide d’accéléromètres. Ainsi, afin d’identifier des indicateurs sensibles au phénomène d’endommagement, plusieurs pistes ont été envisagées. Nous avons examiné les indicateurs scalaires descriptifs des signaux mesurés, qui sont les moments statistiques, fréquences moyennes et médianes. Ces indicateurs sont utilisés avec succès pour la détection de défaut sur les éléments de machines tournantes, mais ils se sont montrés peu sensibles pour détecter des défaillances structurales. Les fréquences propres identifiées automatiquement à partir des signaux temporels acquis sous chargements opérationnels ont également été étudiées. Ensuite, nous nous sommes orientés vers une approche plus globale pour surveiller les changements spectraux causés par l’apparition d’un défaut sur une structure. En se basant sur les matrices spectrales, fonctions et matrices de transmissibilité, des indicateurs multi-capteurs ont été développés et testés pour les deux cas d’étude. Une Analyse en Composantes Principales a permis d’identifier, entre les indicateurs analysés, ceux qui sont les plus pertinents pour la surveillance de l’intégrité des structures. / The principle of the conditional maintenance consists in continuously evaluating the health state of industrial machines, from measurements and appropriate signal processing, in order to carry out maintenance operations only at the most convenient time. In this context, the objective of this PhD thesis is to implement a technique for detecting as soon as possible slow damage initiation in vibrating structures, such as the fatigue cracks, to avoid the unexpected failure of machines. We have conducted empirical investigations with two experimental setups built in the laboratory. The study started with a cantilever beam subjected to dynamic bending loads, and continued on a test-bench more representative of the industrial problem. In both cases, the structure was naturally and progressively damaged, from a state considered to be healthy, until the crack occurs. Its dynamical behavior was monitored using accelerometers. Therefore, in order to identify damage-sensitive features, many leads were investigated. We have examined the features describing the measured signals waveform, which are statistical moments, mean frequencies and median frequencies. They are successfully used for fault detection on rotating machinery, but they did not demonstrate enough sensitiveness to detect structural damage. The natural frequencies automatically identified from the measured time signals under operational loads have also been studied. Thus, we oriented our work towards a more global approach to monitor the spectral changes caused by the appearance of damage on a structure. Based on the spectral matrices and transmissibility quantities, multi-sensor indicators were developed and tested for the two cases of study. A Principal Component Analysis allowed us to identify, between the surveyed features, the ones most relevant for monitoring the integrity of structures.

O objetivo desse estudo foi avaliar in vitro e in situ a efetividade de irradiação dos lasers Er:YAG, Nd:YAG e CO2 no aumento da resistência ácida do esmalte em regiões de sulcos e fissuras. Para o estudo in vitro foram utilizados molares humanos em fragmentos da porção oclusal de 8mmx4mm divididos em 3 grupos de acordo com o tipo de tratamento : Grupo 1 - Er:YAG; Grupo 2 - Nd:YAG; Grupo 3 - CO2 (n=15). O tratamento de superfície foi feito apenas em metade da área do fragmento, sendo que a outra metade foi considerada controle. As áreas expostas ao desafio cariogênico (14mm2) foram submetidas a ciclagens de pH. Para o testede microdureza os espécimes foram seccionados ao meio e a parede da secção é que sofreu o teste, a outra metade foi utilizada para análise em microscopia de luz polarizada para a medição da área da lesão de desmineralização e análise em MEV para verificar as alterações na morfologia do tecido dentário. As análises dos dados de microdureza (HKN) e área das lesões (mm2) foram feitas com o teste de Wilcoxon para a comparação interna de cada grupo com o seu controle e a comparação entre os grupos utilizou ANOVA para as áreas das lesões e Kruskal Wallis para a microdureza (&alpha; = 5%). Foi observada apenas diferença estatística significante para as amostras do grupo irradiado com laser CO2 entre as partes controle e experimental. Os demais grupos não apresentaram diferença estatisticamente significante com sua área controle. Na análise das medidas de lesão foram observadas diferença estatística significante para as amostras do grupo irradiado com os lasers CO2 e Nd:YAG com suas partes controles, sendo as medidas de área de lesão apresentadas pela área irradiada inferiores a área controle. Na análise em MEV o grupo irradiado com laser CO2 mostrou ausência de exposição dos prismas de esmalte e modificação de superfície na área irradiada. Para o estudo in situ foram utilizados molares humanos em fragmentos da porção oclusal de 4mmx4mm tratados com os 3 diferentes tipos de laser: Grupo 1 - controle (sem tratamento); Grupo 2 - Er:YAG; Grupo 3 - Nd:YAG; Grupo 4 - CO2 (n=15). Os espécimes foram adaptados a um dispositivo intrabucal que foi utilizado pelos voluntários durante 14 dias. Para o desafio cariogênico gotejou-se solução de sacarose 20% sobre os espécimes. Assim como no estudo in vitro, foram realizados o teste de microdureza, análise em microscópio de luz polarizada e análise em MEV. Para a análise dos dados de microdureza (HKN) foi utilizada ANOVA e teste de Fisher LSD (&alpha;= 5%). Foi observada diferença estatística significante para as amostras do grupo irradiado com laser CO2 e Nd:YAG, que apresentaram maiores valores de microdureza do que o grupo controle e não foram diferentes estatisticamente entre si. Os valores de microdureza observados em profundidade foram maiores proporcionalmente a distância da superfície, ou seja, 20&micro;m <30&micro;m <40&micro;m <50&micro;m. Na análise em microscopia de luz polarizada a análise foi feita com teste de Wilcoxon e todos os grupos apresentaram semelhança estatística. Considerando os resultados obtidos nos dois estudo pode-se concluir que os lasers CO2 e Nd:YAG foram capazes de promover aumento de resistência ácida no esmalte dental localizado nas superfície de sulcos e fissuras. / The aim of this study was to assess in vitro and in situ the lasers Er:YAG, Nd:YAG e CO2 in preventing enamel demineralization on the pits and fissures surface. For the in vitro study 45 occlusal enamel blocks were randomly divided into 3 groups in according with the treatment: G1 - Er:YAG; G2 - Nd:YAG; G3 - CO2. Treatments were made only on a half of the specimen and the remaining part was considered as a control. The samples were submitted to an in vitro pH cycles. For the microhardness test the specimens were seccioned in the middle and the seccioned wall received the test. The other halves were analyzed using polarized light microscopy for the measurement of the caries-lesion areas and morphological SEM analyses. Wilcoxon test were performed for the statistical analysis of the data obtained from the microhardness test (KHN) and caries-lesion area measurements (mm2) (&alpha;= 5%) when each groups was compared with its control. Variance analysis were performed for the difference in means of microhardness data and Kruskal Wallis test were performed for the difference in means of caries-lesion area measurements (&alpha;= 5%). For the microhardness data the G3 was statically different from its control area and the others groups presented statistical similarity among the experimental and control areas. For the caries-lesion area measurements statistical difference was observed for the groups G2 and G3 presenting smaller caries-lesion area when compared with their respective control areas. In the SEM analysis the G3 showed uniform surface without enamel-prism exposure. For the in situ study 60 occlusal enamel blocks were randomly divided into 4 groups in according with the treatment: G1 - Control (no treatment); G2 - Er:YAG; G3 - Nd:YAG; G4 - CO2 (n=15). The specimens were fixed in intra oral appliances and worn by the volunteers for 14d. Sucrose solution (20%) was applied to each specimen 6 times/d. As the in vitro study the samples were removed, sectioned and examined for microhardness, caries-lesion area measurements on the polarized light microcopy and morphological analyses on SEM. Variance analysis and the Fisher test were performed for the statistical analysis of the data obtained from the microhardness test (KHN) (&alpha;= 5%). The control group was statically different from G3 and G4, which present higher microhardness values and were statistical similar between them. The data of microhardness from the depth of surface were greater in proportion of distance from the surface, as 20&micro;m <30&micro;m <40&micro;m <50&micro;m. Wilcoxon test were performed for the statistical analysis of the data obtained from the caries-lesion area measurements (mm2) (= 5%) and all the groups were statically similar. Considering the results obtained from the both of studies can be concluded that the laser CO2 and Nd:YAG were able to increase the enamel acid resistance on the surface of pits and fissures.

La durabilité des verres, leur réactivité ou leur fonctionnalisation peuvent être optimisées en modifiant leur état de surface, ouvrant ainsi la voie à de nouvelles applications. L'objectif de cette thèse est de mieux appréhender les modifications induites à la surface et à la sub-surface des verres d'oxydes, ainsi que l'évolution des micro-défauts existant à leur surface au cours de traitements thermiques. Ces traitements sont réalisés autour de la température de transition vitreuse, mais à des températures où le verre ne se déforme pas. Cette étude met en évidence l'influence cruciale de l'atmosphère de traitement. Elle porte principalement sur le cas du verre « float », en distinguant les faces « air » et « étain ».En s'appuyant sur les spectroscopies SIMS et Infrarouge, l'étude montre que les modifications de la sub-surface du verre dépendent de la teneur en eau de l'atmosphère du four. Alors que la sub-surface, initialement hydratée, est peu modifiée lorsque le taux d'humidité est élevé, les changements les plus significatifs sont observés sous atmosphère sèche. La déshydratation de la sub-surface du verre induit en effet la création d'une couche enrichie en silice par appauvrissement en ions modificateurs.Pour caractériser l'influence de ces modifications sur l'évolution de la morphologie des micro-défauts de surface au cours des traitements thermiques, des micro-fissures sont générées par indentation Vickers puis analysées par microscopies optique et électronique. Deux mécanismes sont mis en évidence : soit une fermeture des fissures dans les premiers instants du traitement sous l'effet de la relaxation des contraintes, soit une sphéroïdisation des fissures par flux visqueux induit par les forces tensions capillaires. Ces mécanismes sont en compétition et dépendent de l'état initial de la sub-surface du verre. En effet, la viscosité de cette sub-surface est fortement dépendante de son taux d'hydratation et peut varier très significativement au cours du traitement thermique. Dans le cas de la face « étain » du verre float, l'influence du caractère oxydant de l'atmosphère est également mis en évidence. / The glass durability, its reactivity or its functionalization can be optimized by surface modification, allowing development of new applications. The aim of this thesis is to better understand the changes induced at the oxide glass surface and sub-surface and the evolution of surface micro-flaws during thermal treatment.These treatments are performed around glass transition temperature, but at temperatures at which the samples are not deformed. The key role of the atmosphere of treatment is especially highlighted. Analyses focused on the float glass both on the “air side” and “tin side”.Based on SIMS and infrared spectroscopies, results show that the sub-surface changes depend on the water content of the furnace atmosphere. While the sub-surface, initially hydrated, is not strongly modified when the humidity level is high, significant changes are induced under dry atmosphere. The dehydration of the sub-surface induces indeed the formation of a silica enriched layer by impoverishment of modified ions.In order to characterize the influence of these changes on the evolution of micro-flaws morphology during thermal treatments, micro-cracks are generated by Vickers indentation and analyzed by optical and electronic microcopies. Two main behaviors are evidenced: either a direct crack closure during the first step of the thermal treatment due to stress relaxation or a crack spheroidization caused by viscous flow driven by capillarity forces. Both mechanisms are in competition and depend on the initial state of the glass sub-surface. The viscosity of this layer is highly dependent on the hydration level and can vary significantly during the treatment. In case of “tin side” of float glass, the effect of oxidant atmosphere is also evidenced.

Cette thèse de doctorat est réalisée en partenariat avec EDF et s’inscrit dans le cadre de la gestion du parc de tours aéroréfrigérantes des centrales nucléaires. Certaines tours présentent des fissures qui peuvent favoriser la carbonatation du béton d’enrobage et ainsi accélérer l’initiation de la corrosion des armatures. L’objectif de ce travail est de caractériser l’impact de ces fissures sur l’initiation et la propagation de la corrosion des armatures. Un programme expérimental dédié est détaillé. Dans un premier temps, un protocole de fissuration permettant de reproduire les fissures observées sur les tours est défini. Une attention particulière a été portée à la limitation de l’endommagement de l’interface acier/béton. Les éprouvettes fissurées sont ensuite carbonatées (de manière accélérée) dans le double but de mesurer la longueur de la zone d’interface altérée et de dépassiver l’armature en fond de fissure pour permettre l’initiation de la corrosion. La corrosion est contrôlée en laboratoire par l’intermédiaire de cycles de pluie/séchage et l’état de corrosion est caractérisé par différentes techniques (desquamation, microscopie optique, spectroscopie Raman, suivi de potentiel de corrosion libre). Différentes configurations représentatives du service des tours aéroréfrigérantes sont testées (3 ouvertures de fissures, 2 orientations de fissures, température, HR, etc.). Les résultats obtenus permettent de montrer qu’après une période d’initiation, la vitesse moyenne de corrosion décroit rapidement et que l’acier tend à se repassiver. Cette repassivation est liée à la formation d’une couche d’oxydes en fond de fissure qui limite l’accès de l’oxygène et de l’eau à l’armature. / This thesis is performed in partnership with EDF in the framework of concrete ageing management of cooling towers of Electricity of France (EDF) nuclear power plants. Indeed some of them can be affected by cracks which may promote the carbonation of the concrete cover and accelerate the reinforcement corrosion initiation. The objective of this work is to characterize the impact of these cracks on the initiation and propagation of reinforcement corrosion. A dedicated experimental program is detailed. Firstly, a cracking protocol reproducing cracks found in the concrete of cooling towers is defined. Particular attention was paid to limit the damage along the steel/mortar interface. Cracked specimens are thereafter exposed to accelerated carbonation for the dual purpose of measuring the length of the damaged interface and accelerating the depassivation of the rebar deep in the crack in order to accelerate the corrosion initiation. The corrosion is controlled in the laboratory via raining/drying cycles and its state is characterized by several technics (desquamation, optical microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, monitoring of the free corrosion potential). Different configurations representative of the cooling towers are tested (three crack openings, 2 crack orientations, temperature, relative humidity, etc.). Obtained results show that after the corrosion initiation period, the corrosion kinetics decreases rapidly and the reinforcement tends to repassivation. This repassivation is related to the formation of oxide layer deep in the crack limiting therefore the access of water and oxygen to the rebar.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / Entre todos os tipos de cÃncer, o de pulmÃo (CP) à um dos mais comuns de todos os tumores malignos, apresentando aumento de 2% por ano na sua incidÃncia mundial. No Brasil, para o ano de 2014 sÃo estimados 27.330 casos novos de CP, sendo destes 16.400, em homens e 10.930 em mulheres. Neste contexto, à de fundamental importÃncia para saÃde pÃblica realizar e determinar diagnÃsticos precoces e mais precisos para detectar os estÃgios reais das doenÃas pulmonares. O auxÃlio ao diagnÃstico mostra-se importante tanto do ponto de vista clÃnico quanto em pesquisa. Dentre os fatores que contribuem para isto, pode-se citar o aumento da precisÃo do diagnÃstico do mÃdico especialista à medida que aumenta o nÃmero de informaÃÃes sobre o estado do paciente. Deste modo, certas doenÃas podem ser detectadas precocemente, aumentando as chances de cura. O tratamento inicial para esta doenÃa consiste na lobectomia. Nesse contexto, costuma-se realizar a segmentaÃÃo dos lobos pulmonares em imagens de Tomografia Computadorizada para extrair dados e auxiliar no planejamento da lobectomia. A segmentaÃÃo dos lobos a partir de imagens de TC à geralmente obtida atravÃs da detecÃÃo das fissuras pulmonares. Nesse sentido, com o intuito de obter uma segmentaÃÃo da fissura pulmonar mais eficaz e realizar um processo totalmente independente das demais estruturas presentes no exame de TC, o presente trabalho possui o objetivo de realizar a segmentaÃÃo das fissuras utilizando medidas de textura LBP e Redes Neurais Artificiais (RNA). Para a implementaÃÃo do algoritmo foi utilizado uma MLP (Multilayer Perceptron) com 60 entradas, 120 neurÃnios na camada oculta e 2 neurÃnios de saÃda. Os parÃmetros de entrada para a rede foi o histograma LBP do voxel a ser analisado. Para o treinamento da rede foi necessÃrio criar um sistema para identificaÃÃo das classes fissuras e nÃo-fissuras de forma manual, onde o usuÃrio seleciona os pixels da classe fissura e da nÃo-fissura. Para realizar as validaÃÃes do algoritmo foi criado um padrÃo-ouro que foi extraÃdo um total de 100 imagens de 5 exames do banco de dados LOLA11. Nessas imagens, as fissuras foram destacadas por 2 especialistas. A partir do padrÃo-ouro, o as imagens foram processadas pelo algoritmo e assim os resultados obtidos. Para o conjunto de imagens testadas, o classificador obteve um melhor desempenho quando o tamanho, 15x15 pixels, da janela utilizada para gerar o histograma do LBP. Para chegar atà essa definiÃÃo foram testados os tamanhos 11x11, 15x15, 17x17 e 21x21 e os resultados foram comparados utilizando as mÃtricas de Especificidade Es(\%), Coeficiente de Similaridade CS(%), Sensibilidade S(\%), distÃncia mÃdia e desvio padrÃo da distÃncia. A primeira abordagem de anÃlise dos resultados à atravÃs dos voxels}definidos como fissura no final da metodologia proposta. Para a metodologia proposta, detecÃÃo automÃtica utilizando LBP ( extit{Local Binary Pattern}) e MLP, as taxas obtidas foram CS = 96,7%, S = 69,6% e Es = 96,8% para o mÃtodo proposto antes do afinamento e CS = 99,2%, S = 3% e Es = 99,81% para o mÃtodo proposto com o afinamento no fim, considerando a incidÃncia de falsos positivos e falsos negativos. Outra abordagem utilizada na literatura para avaliaÃÃo de mÃtodos de segmentaÃÃo de fissuras à baseado na distÃncia mÃdia entre a fissura delineada pelo especialista e a fissura resultante do algoritmo proposto. Desta forma, o algoritmo proposto neste trabalho foi comparado com o algoritmo de Lassen(2013) atravÃs da abordagem da distÃncia mÃdia entre a fissura segmentada manual e a fissura segmentada de forma automÃtica. O algoritmo proposto com afinamento no final obteve uma menor distÃncia no valor de e um menor desvio padrÃo comparado com o mÃtodo de Lassen(2013). Por fim, sÃo apresentados os resultados da segmentaÃÃo automÃtica das fissuras pulmonares. A baixa incidÃncia de detecÃÃes falso negativas, juntamente com a reduÃÃo significativa de detecÃÃes falso positivas, resultam em taxa de acerto elevada. Conclui-se que a tÃcnica de segmentaÃÃo de fissuras pulmonares à um algoritmo Ãtil para segmentar fissuras pulmonares em imagens de TC, e com o potencial de integrar sistemas que auxiliem o diagnÃstico mÃdico. / Among all cancers, lung cancer (LC) is one of the most common tumors, an increase of 2% per year on its worldwide incidence. In Brazil, for the year of 2014, 27,330 new cases of LC are estimated, these being 16,400 in men and 10,930 in women. In this context, it is of fundamental importance for public health the identication on early stages of lung diseases. The diagnosis assistance shows to be important both from a clinical standpoint as in research. Among the factors contributing to this scene, one important is the increasing accuracy of diagnosis of a medical expert as you increase the number of information about the patient's condition. Thus, certain disorders might be detected early, including saving lives in some cases. The initial treatment for this disease consists of lobectomy. In this context, it is customary to perform the segmentation of lung lobes in CT images to extract data and assist in planning for lobectomy. The segmentation of the lobes from CT images is usually obtained by detection of pulmonary fissures. Thus, in order to obtain a more effective segmentation of pulmonary fissures, and perform a completely independent process from the other structures present in the CT scan, the present work has the objective to perform the fissure segmentation using LBP texture measures and Neural Networks (NN). To implement the algorithm we used one MLP with 60 inputs, 120 hidden neurons and 2 output neurons. The input parameters for the network was the LBP histogram of the voxel being analyzed. For network training, it was necessary to create a system to label the features as fissures and non-fissures manually, where the user selects the fissure pixels class. To perform the validation of the algorithm was necessary to create a "gold standard"in which it was extracted a total of 100 images from 5 exams from the dataset LOLA11, where these images were the fissures were highlighted by two experts. From the gold standard, the proposed algorithm was processed and the results were obtained. For all tested images, the classifier obtained a better performance when the size of 15x15 pixels of the window was used to generate the histogram of the LBP. To get to this definition were tested sizes of 11x11, 15x15, 17x17 and 21x21 and the results were based on metrics comaprados ACC (%), TPR (%), SPC (%) distance mean and standard deviation of the distance. The first approach to analyze the results is through the voxels defined as fissure at the end of the proposed methodology. For the proposed methodology, using automatic detection and MLP LBP before thinning, the rates were obtained ACC= 96.7 %, TPR = 69.6 % and SPC = 96.8 % and ACC = 99 2 % TPR = 3 % and SPC = 99.81 % for the proposed method with the thinning in the end, considering the incidence of false positives and false negatives. Another approach used in the literature for evaluating methods of fissure segmentation is based on the average distance between the fissure delineated by the expert and the resulting fissure through the algorithm. Thus, the algorithm proposed in this paper was compared with the algorithm Lassen et al. (2013) by the average distance between the manual segmented and the automatically segmented fissure. The proposed algorithm with the thinning in the end achieved a shorter distance average value and a lower standard deviation compared with the method of (LASSEN et al., 2013). Finally, the results obtained for automatic segmentation of lung fissures are presented. The low incidence of false negative detections detection results, together with the significant reduction in false positive detections result in a high rate of settlement. We conclude that the segmentation technique for lung fissures is a useful target for pulmonary fissures on CT images and has potential to integrate systems that help medical diagnosis.

Ces travaux de recherche s’inscrivent dans le cadre des études de faisabilité du stockage du dioxyde de carbone en couches géologiques profondes, et portent plus particulièrement sur l’évolution des propriétés de confinement de roches-couvertures de type argilite, soumises à des fluides enrichis en CO2. Pour ce faire, les argilites de Tournemire (Aveyron, France) ont été utilisées comme roches analogues, après avoir identifié leurs possible points de faiblesse vis-à-vis du stockage, à savoir leur minéralogie, la présence de fissures naturelles remplies de calcite et la présence d’interfaces ciment/argilite attendues au niveau des puits d’injection rebouchés. Le montage expérimental de type « diffusion à travers » a été adapté pour permettre d’estimer (i) la possible modification des paramètres de transport diffusif enregistrés, avant et après attaque acide, pour les différents traceurs radioactifs (tritium et chlore-36) et non-radioactifs (deutérium et bromure) utilisés pour caractériser les échantillons d’argilite de Tournemire et de pâte de ciment et (ii) l’évolution des compositions chimiques des solutions contenues dans les réservoirs amont et aval des cellules de diffusion au cours des attaques acides. Enfin, l’analyse des solides a été réalisée pour partie par MEB-EDS, µTomographie-X et DRX. Tout d’abord, pour l’ensemble des échantillons étudiés, les valeurs des paramètres de transport déterminées avant attaque acide (coefficient de diffusion effectif et porosité) sont cohérentes avec celles de la littérature. En outre, il apparaît que tous les matériaux ont fortement réagi aux attaques acides. Ainsi, les argilites ont vu leurs paramètres de diffusion augmenter jusqu’à un facteur deux, notamment pour les traceurs anioniques, et ce, quelque soit la proportion de minéraux carbonatées présents initialement dans les échantillons d’argilite. Les observations post-mortem ont permis l’identification d’une zone de dissolution des minéraux carbonatés en leur au sein, mais dont l’extension (400 µm au maximum) ne peut à elle seule expliquer cette importante dégradation des propriétés de confinement. Seuls des phénomènes non observables à l’échelle d’investigation, tels des effets de digitation au sein du réseau poreux pourraient en être à l’origine. Par ailleurs, les échantillons d’argilites recoupés par des fissures naturelles ont systématiquement développé des courts-circuits hydrauliques, qui s’expliquent par la mise en place d’un processus de chenalisation préférentielle au sein même de la fissure, observé au MEB-EDS et par µTomographie X. De plus, les matériaux cimentaires ont vu leurs propriétés de confinement améliorées, et ce, plus le fluide d’attaque était proche de la neutralité. Ceci est lié à l’apparition d‘une croûte de calcite d’environ 30 µm d’épaisseur, situé à l’avant d’une zone de dissolution, dont l’épaisseur est proportionnelle à la quantité d’acide en solution. Cette croûte imperméable, obstruant la porosité, serait responsable de la diminution des paramètres de diffusion, observée à l’échelle de l’échantillon, ainsi que le reproduisent les simulations numériques. Enfin, les interfaces ciment/argilites n’ont pas révélé de changement de leurs propriétés de confinement à l’échelle globale, la dégradation des argilites étant compensé par l’aggradation du ciment via la formation de cette croûte de calcite. / This research is part of the studies of feasibility of CO2 storage in deep geological strata, focusing more particularly on the evolution of the confinement properties of cap-rocks type argillite subjected to CO2 enriched fluids. The argillite of Tournemire (Aveyron, France) were used as analog rocks, having identified what their weak points could be face to storage, namely their mineralogy, natural fractures filled with calcite and the presence of interfaces cement / argillite expected in filled injection wells. The "through diffusion" experimental setup has been adapted to estimate (i) the possible modification of diffusive transport parameters recorded before and after acid attack for different radioactive tracers (tritium and chlorine-36) and non-radioactive tracers (deuterium and bromide) used to characterize samples of argillite of Tournemire and cement paste and (ii) the evolution of the chemical compositions of the solutions in the upstream and downstream reservoirs of diffusion cells during acid attacks. Finally, the analysis of solids was carried out in part by SEM-EDS, XRD and X-μTomographie. Firstly, for all the samples studied, the values of the transport parameters determined before acid attack (effective diffusion coefficient and porosity) are consistent with those of the literature. In addition, it appears that all materials have reacted strongly to acid attacks. Thus, argillites saw their diffusion parameters increase up to a factor of two, especially for anionic tracers, and, whatever the proportion of carbonate minerals initially present in samples of argillite. The post-mortem observations have led to the identification of a zone of dissolution of carbonate minerals in them, but whose extension (400 microns or less) can not alone explain the significant degradation of the containment properties. Only unobservable phenomena during investigation scale, such as wormhole effects in porous network could be the cause. In addition, the samples of argillite intruded by natural fractures have systematically developed hydraulic short circuits, which can be explained by the introduction of a process of preferential channeling within the fracture observed by SEM-EDS and X. μTomographie In addition, the more close to neutral was the fluid attack the more cementitious materials saw their confinement properties improved. This is related to the appearance of a crust of calcite about 30 microns thick on the front of a dissolution zone, the thickness of which is proportional to the amount of acid in solution. This waterproof crust, clogging the pores, would be responsible for the decrease in diffusion parameters observed across the sample, and as numerical simulations reproduce it. Finally, the interface cement / claystone showed no change in their confinement properties on a global scale, the degradation of clays being offset by aggradation cement via the formation of the crust of calcite.

L’espace urbain s’avère être un système complexe grâce aux interactions entre les composants de chaque milieu. L’homme n’est qu’un des multiples éléments de ce système mais il assume, en même temps, une posture singulière face aux autres composantes du fait de sa capacité à imaginer le futur. Cette condition lui a permis, à travers des outils de projection, d’orienter les transformations des milieux qu’il habite en décidant d’y soutenir ou d’y nier ces interactions. Pendant le XXème siècle, l’espace urbain de la ville européenne a été transformé à travers des projets urbains incarnant une idée de liberté. A partir de ces projets, l’espace urbain paraît subir des dissociations entre les acteurs, entre les outils de projection et le territoire et, enfin, entre les espaces physiques. Les résultats de processus de dissociations semblent être des espaces-fissures capables de faire émerger des métamorphoses par adaptation des milieux. Si la figure de l’intermilieux représente ces régénérations métaphysiques et physiques de la ville, le dispositif intermilieux en décrit l’approche opérationnelle basée sur le partage et l’expérimentation du projet urbain ouvert. La ville de Milan représente un champ d’investigation passionnant à cet égard. L’enquête menée dans ce territoire, la confrontation avec les acteurs impliqués, l’observation directe des lieux et de leur condition spatiale ont permis de faire émerger la diversification des expérimentations. Si in-situ, le dispositif intermilieux s’adapte en produisant des projets urbains ouverts, une contamination vertueuse se réalise entre ces projets en générant des réseaux trans-situ, des constellations cartographiques. / Urban space proves to be a complex system thanks to the interactions between the various components of each environment. Man is only one of the many elements of this system, but at the same time he assumes a singular position against the other components because of his ability to imagine the future. This condition allows him, through projection tools, to guide the transformations of the environments he inhabits by deciding to support or deny these interactions. During the twentieth century, the urban space of the European city was transformed through urban projects embodying an idea of ​​freedom. From these projects, the urban space seems to undergo dissociations between the actors, between the projection tools and the territory and, finally, between the physical spaces. The results of dissociation processes seem to be fissured spaces capable of bringing about a metamorphosis through the adaptation of the environment. If the figure of the intermilieux represents these metaphysical and physical regenerations of the city, the intermilieux apparatus describes the operational approach based on the sharing and the experimentation of the open urban project. Milan is an exciting field of investigation in this respect. The survey conducted in this territory, the confrontation with the actors involved, and the direct observation of the places and their spatial condition, made it possible to bring out the diversification of the experiments. If in-situ, the intermilieux apparatus adapts itself by producing open urban projects, a virtuous contamination is realized between these projects and these transformations by generating trans-situ networks, the cartographic constellations.

Ma thématique de recherche s'intéresse à l'étude de la fatigue des matériaux, et se focalise plus particulièrement sur l'analyse de la plasticité cyclique et des endommagements induits dans les matériaux métalliques. Elle s'inscrit dans une démarche globale conjointe d'analyse expérimentale et de modélisation numérique.<br />Les travaux présentés se focalisent sur l'étude du comportement d'un acier inoxydable austéno-ferritique et s'articulent suivant quatre thèmes :<br />- Etude expérimentale du comportement mécanique en fatigue oligocyclique. Un certain nombre de résultats expérimentaux en fatigue oligocyclique sont présentés, en particulier, l'importance de caractériser le comportement mécanique sous sollicitations multiaxiales est soulignée. Deux méthodes sont comparées permettant la mesure des caractéristiques de l'écrouissage : la mesure de surfaces de plasticité en cours d'essai, et l'analyse a posteriori des boucles d'hystérésis.<br />- Modélisation du comportement mécanique observé. Deux approches ont été utilisées, d'une part une approche phénoménologique qui nécessite des mesures des caractéristiques de l'écrouissage, et d'autre part une approche micromécanique qui s'appuie sur l'analyse de la structure biphasée de l'acier étudié. L'identification de ce deuxième modèle a été réalisée sur une base expérimentale particulièrement réduite sans cependant amoindrir sa capacité de prédiction. Une proposition originale pour la modélisation de l'adoucissement cyclique a été faite à partir d'observations au microscope électronique à transmission.<br />- Etude de la déformation progressive. A partir de résultats expérimentaux biaxiaux, il est montré que les niveaux de déformation progressive obtenus peuvent s'expliquer par la direction d'écoulement plastique observée, due à la distorsion de la surface de plasticité. Un modèle simulant cette distorsion est alors identifié.<br />- Analyse et simulation de la plasticité à l'échelle de la microstructure. La plasticité cyclique et l'amorçage en fatigue étant fortement liés aux caractéristiques de la microstructure, une analyse locale a été entreprise. Un dispositif expérimental original a été développé afin d'analyser les mécanismes de déformation in-situ pendant un essai mécanique. Plusieurs moyens d'analyse sont utilisés conjointement (microscopie, champs cinématiques calculés à partir d'images obtenues entre deux instants, cartographie EBSD, profilométrie). Une comparaison est faite entre les champs cinématiques obtenus et un calcul d'agrégat polycristallin reprenant les lois cristallines identifiées précédemment.