Este trabalho foi dividido em duas seções. Na primeira parte foi avaliado o desempenho de uma célula a combustível de eletrólito polimérico com ânodos de Pt/C e/ou Pt3Nb/C alimentada com hidrogênio contaminado com CO e oxigênio no cátodo. O material Pt3Nb/C 20% metal/C foi sintetizado por impregnação dos metais em carbono. Difratogramas de raios X mostraram evidências da formação de uma estrutura Pt3Nb-NbxOy, com os dados de microscopia eletrônica indicando que mesmo após tratamento térmico a 1000 °C é possível ter uma boa distribuição do tamanho das nanopartículas. Resultados de absorção de raios X mostraram que a um preenchimento dos níveis eletrônicos na banda 5d da Pt devido principalmente a distribuição maior do tamanho das nanopartículas do material Pt3Nb/C e a presença do Nb na estrutura, e que esse efeito tem um influência marcante nas respostas eletroquímicas observadas para a reação de eletroxidação de CO. Os dados da célula a combustível em conjunto com os dados extraídos com auxílio de um espectrômetro de massas mostraram definitivamente que o material Pt3Nb/C apresenta um desempenho muito superior a Pt/C em termos de tolerância ao CO presente no H2 usado como combustível. Na segunda parte do trabalho foram sintetizados usando-se o método de redução de íons em solução com ácido fórmico, dois materiais com nanopartículas de Pt suportadas em Nb2O5/C. Os materiais sintetizados foram avaliados em relação ao desempenho e estabilidade no cátodo de uma célula a combustível de eletrólito polimérico, com ânodos de Pt/C e cátodos com Pt/C e/ou Pt-Nb2O5-C, e alimentada com hidrogênio e oxigênio. De acordo com os dados de Absorção de Raios X, devido a presença do óxido ocorre a retirada de densidade eletrônica da banda 5d da Pt levando a um pequeno aumento da absorção verificado para os materiais sintetizados em relação ao material comercial. As imagens de Microscopia Eletrônica de Transmissão, mostram que o desempenho da célula diminui com o tempo de uso, principalmente devido a aglomeração das nanopartículas e corrosão do suporte de carbono. Em termos de estabilidade, a menor perda de área ativa verificada nos materiais suportados em Nb2O5/C aparentemente é o fator responsável pelo melhor desempenho desses materiais no cátodo em relação a reação de redução de oxigênio principalmente em longos períodos de operação da célula. / This work was divided into two parts. In the first part, the performance of a fuel cell with Nafion 115 as the polymer electrolyte was evaluated. The anodes were composed of Pt/C and/or Pt3Nb/C, which were fed with H2 containning 100 ppm of CO, while the cathode (Pt/C) was fed with O2. For the Pt3Nb/C (20 % metal/C) synthesis, the metals were impregnated on carbon, followed by heat treatment in a reducing atmosphere. X-Ray Diffraction results showed evidence of a Pt3Nb-NbxOy structure. The Transmission Electron Microscopy data indicated that even after heat-treating the material at 1000°C, it is possible to obtain a good nanoparticle size distribution. X-Ray Absorption results for Pt3Nb/C showed that electronic levels in the Pt 5d band are filled, mainly because of the better size distribution of the nanoparticles in this material, and because of the Nb presence in the structure. The later has a significant influence on the electrochemical responses observed for the CO electrooxidation reaction. The data obtained from the fuel cell coupled to a mass spectrometer definitely showed that Pt3Nb/C is much more Co-tolerant than Pt/C. In the second part, two materials composed of Pt supported on Nb2O5/C were synthesized by reducing ions with formic acid. The performance and stability of these materials as cathodes of a fuel cell were evaluated. In this case, the fuel cell with Nafion 115 as the polymer electrolyte was fed with H2/O2. Its anode was composed of Pt/C, and cathodes of Pt/C and/or Pt-Nb2O5-C. The X-Ray Absorption data reveled a decrease in the electronic density of the Pt 5d band, due to the presence of oxide, leading to a small increase of the absorption observed for the synthesized materials when compared to the commercial Pt/C. Transmission Electron Microscopy images showed nanoparticles agglomeration and corrosion of the carbon support in the cathode, decreasing the performance of the fuel cell over time. In terms of the stability, the better performance of the materials supported on Nb2O5/C in relation to the oxygen reduction reaction, over long periods of the fuel cell operation, is due to a small loss of the active areas of these materials.

Além da necessidade do desenvolvimento de novos eletrocatalisadores para aplicação em células à combustível, há também a necessidade da diminuição do crossover, que compromete a eficiência da reação de oxidação do combustível. Sendo assim, foi realizada neste trabalho a dopagem das membranas de Nafion® 117 com nanopartículas de \'PT\' e \'PT\'/\'RU\', em duas concentrações diferentes de platina, pelo método de absorção-redução. Os resultados de Absorção Atômica e a coloração das amostras comprovaram a absorção da solução de precursores metálicos pela membrana. Os dados de FTIR-ATR e DRX mostraram que houve a formação de nanopartículas. Pelos testes em células unitárias (PEMFC, DMFC e DEFC), observou-se que tanto a PEMFC como a DEFC apresentaram uma melhora na eficiência. Apesar de ter havido um ganho significativo de densidade de potência, de até 50%, com membranas dopadas, não foi possível eliminar o crossover. Entretanto, no caso da DEFC, encontrou-se uma alta porcentagem de produtos oxidados com dois átomos de carbono na saída do cátodo. Os principais produtos formados foram acetaldeído e ácido acético, sendo que o ácido acético foi o produto majoritário. Também foram detectados traços de ácido fórmico comprovando que houve, em menor escala, a quebra da ligação C-C. Além disso, os resultados mostraram que a dopagem das membranas de Nafion® parece ter conferido uma melhora na durabilidade das amostras, já que estas, quando comparadas à membrana sem partículas metálicas, alcançaram maiores densidades de correntes. Finalmente, a dopagem da membrana e a elevação de temperatura provocaram um melhor desempenho nas DEFCs testadas. / Beyond the necessity of the development of new electrocatalysts for fuel cell application, there is also the necessity of diminishing of the crossover that compromises the oxidation efficiency of the fuel. So, in this work was carried out the doping of the Nafion® 117 membranes with \'PT\' and \'PT\'/\'RU\' nanoparticles in two different platinum concentrations by using the absorption-reduction method. The Atomic Absorption results and the color of the samples proved that the absorption of the metallic precursor solutions by the membrane happened. FTIR-ATR and XRD data showed the formation of nanoparticles. It was observed that in unitary fuel cells (PEMFC, DMFC and DEFC) tests the PEMFC and DEFC showed an improvement in the efficiency. Although a significant increase in the power density, up to 50 % by using doped membranes, it was not possible to eliminate the crossover. However, in the case of the DEFC, a high percentage of oxidized products with two carbon atoms was found in the cathode exit. The main formed products were acetaldehyde and acetic acid, being the acetic acid the majority product. Traces of formic was also detected demonstrating that, in lesser scale, the break of the C-C bond is feasible. Moreover, the results showed that the durability of the doped Nafion® membranes is higher than the membrane without metallic particles, since bigger current densities were reached in the former case. Finally, the membrane doping and the temperature rise led the DEFC to the best performance.

Devido a crescente demanda de energia elétrica este trabalho tem como objetivo a elaboração de um projeto bioclimático de uma edificação para o estudo sobre o uso de célula a combustível movida a hidrogênio solar, como forma de energia alternativa. O fornecimento de energia elétrica é feito apor meio de um sistema proveniente de painéis fotovoltaicos fornecendo energia para a produção de hidrogênio através da eletrólise da água para gerar energia elétrica com uma célula a combustível. A metodologia utilizada foi projetar uma casa típica da região do interior de São Paulo, para posteriormente dimensionar um sistema hidrogênio solar adequado para essa casa modelo. Foi feita a análise do clima local para posteriormente aplicar estratégias da arquitetura bioclimática. Os dados sobre o dimensionamento do sistema tais quais, número de painéis solares, número e volume dos tanques de hidrogênio necessários, potência e tamanho físico da célula a combustível foram fornecidos pela empresa UNITECH de fabricação de célula a combustível. Um modelo foi simulado utilizando uma planilha eletrônica; nele foram introduzidas as principais características e eficiências dos equipamentos que compõem o sistema, bem como o perfil de carga elétrica característico do local e seus custos. Como resultado foram analisadas as formas de dimensionar o sistema hidrogênio solar para uma residência típica, onde foi constatado que há duas formas de dimensionamento: uma através da demanda energética da casa (kWh) e outra através da potência requerida pelos equipamentos da casa (Watts). O modelo escolhido a ser estudado e representado com o projeto arquitetônico foi pela curva da demanda energética diária resultando em 450 kWh/mês, havendo assim a diminuição da área de painéis solares e viabilizando a introdução da nova tecnologia. Outro cenário foi analisado pelo cálculo da potência, resultando em um total de 5 kW e obtendo uma extensa área de painéis solares, no entanto essa energia que sobra poderia ser fornecida para as concessionárias auxiliando nos horários de pico a energia consumida, ou ainda formando uma mini usina para comunidades isoladas. No projeto arquitetônico da edificação foram analisadas as mudanças e dificuldades quanto ao design, local e instalação dos componentes para implantação do sistema. Os dados de energia gerada e consumida são analisados servindo também como base para diversas pesquisas. Conclui-se que o sistema ainda não consegue ser competitivo economicamente com o sistema tradicional de energia elétrica, se não levado em conta aspectos ambientais, e sem o apoio de uma forte política governamental; porém aspectos do processo projetual arquitetônico se mantêm praticamente os mesmos. E ainda destaca-se a mudança de paradigma da energia elétrica, pois o consumidor passa a ser produtor. / Due to increasing demand for electricity this paper aims to draw up a bioclimatic design a building for studies on the use of fuel cells powered solar hydrogen as an alternative energy. The electricity supply is done through a system from photovoltaic panels supplying power to produce hydrogen through electrolysis of water to generate electricity with a fuel cell. The methodology used was to design a typical home of the São Paulo region, using data from IBGE and SINFHA for later sizing a solar hydrogen system to the house style. Analysis of the local climate was taken by INMET, CPTEC and CIIAGRO. Subsequently the bioclimatic chart (NBR 15220) and the solar chart for use of bioclimatic architecture strategies are applied. The data on the system design as such, the number of solar panels, number and volume of hydrogen required, power and physical size of the fuel cell tanks were provided by the company UNITECH manufacturing fuel cell. A model was simulated using a spreadsheet; it was introduced the main characteristics and efficiencies of equipment that make up the system, as well as the listing of the characteristic electrical charge of the place and its costs. As a result ways to scale the solar hydrogen system for a typical residence, where it was found that there are two ways of scaling were analyzed: one through the house energy demand (kWh) and the other through the power required by the equipment of the house (Watts) . The model chosen to be studied and represented with the architectural design was by the curve of daily energy demand resulting in 450 kWh / month, so there is a decrease in the area of solar panels and enabling the introduction of new technology. Another scenario was analyzed by calculating the power, resulting in a total of 5 kW and getting a large area of solar panels, however this left over energy could be provided for utilities assisting at peak energy consumed, or forming a mini plant for isolated communities. In the architectural design of the building, we analyzed the changes and difficulties regarding the design, location and installation of components for deployment. The data generated and consumed energy are analyzed also serving as base for numerous research. We conclude that the system still can not be economically competitive with traditional power system, if not taken into account environmental aspects, and without the support of a strong government policy; But aspects of the architectural design process remain largely the same.

Solid oxide fuel cells with graded electrodes consisting of multiple composite layers yield generally lower polarization resistances than single layer composite electrodes. Optimization of the performance of solid oxide fuel cells with graded electrode composition and/or microstructure requires an evaluation of both the three phase boundary length per unit volume and the effective diffusion coefficient in order to provide insight into how these properties vary over the design space. A numerical methodology for studying the three phase boundary length and effective diffusivity in composite electrode layers with controlled properties is developed. A three dimensional solid model of a sintered composite electrode is generated for which the mean particle diameter, composition, and total porosity may be specified as independent variables. The total three phase boundary length for the modeled electrode is calculated and tomographic methods are used to estimate the fraction of this length over which the electrochemical reactions can theoretically occur. Furthermore, the open porosity of the modeled electrode is identified and the effective diffusion coefficient is extracted from the solution of the concentration of the diffusing species within the open porosity. Selected example electrode models are used to illustrate the application of the methods developed, and the resulting connected three phase boundary length and diffusion coefficients are compared. A significant result is the need for thickness-specific effective diffusivity to be determined, rather than the general volume averaged property, for electrodes with porosity between the upper and lower percolation thresholds. As the demand for current increases, more of the connected three phase boundaries become active, and therefore a greater fraction of the electrode layer is utilized for a given geometry, resulting in a higher apparent effective diffusivity compared to the same electrode geometry operating at a lower current. The methods developed in this work may be used within a macroscopic electrode performance model to investigate optimal designs for solid oxide fuel cell electrodes with stepwise graded composition and/or microstructure. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Mechanical Engineering, Department of / Graduate

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / This study focused on binary PtRu and PtSn electrocatalyst, synthesized using the polyol approach and supported on MWCNTs, TiO2 and MoO2 materials, after synthesis part of the resultant electrocatalyst was heat treated to improve alloying of the secondary metal to the primary platinum metal catalyst and also to enhance the stable distribution and uniform dispersion of the nanoparticles on the support material. Physical characterization of the supported catalyst was done using XRD, HRTEM, HRSEM and EDS for elemental analysis. For electrochemical characterization RDE-CV and RDE-LSV were employed. The homeprepared electro-catalysts were then compared to the Pt/C, PtRu/C and PtSn/C commercial electro-catalysts accordingly. XRD confirmed that the binary electro-catalyst for both the commercial and home-prepared display characteristic patterns similar to that of the standard Pt/C electro-catalyst, an indication that all catalysts have prevailed the Pt face-centred-cubic (fcc) crystal structure. Particle size and size distribution examined using HRTEM showed that Pt/C and PtSn/C was uniformly dispersed on the carbon support and that all electrocatalyst supported on MWCNTs showed small particle size known to enhance the activity of the catalyst. However, after heattreatment the particle size increased for all prepared supported electrocatalyst as was expected from literature. SEM micrographs showed that all electrocatalyst were decorated on the support material with agglomerates on some parts of the samples, agglomeration was more pronounced for catalysts supported on MoO2. The metal loading for the home- prepared electrocatalyst was examined using EDS and it was observed to be closer to that of the commercial catalysts. It was also observed that there were changes on the loading of the electrocatalysts after they were subjected to heat treatment and depending on the support material the metal loading of the catalyst was either more or less. This study found PtSn/C to be the most active commercial catalyst for methanol tolerant and oxygen reduction. For the home-prepared electrocatalyst supported on MWCNTs, PtSn/MWCNT-HT was found to be the most active catalyst while for catalyst supported on metal oxides PtSn/MoO2 was found to be more active than the rest of the Pt-based electro catalyst supported on metal oxides. Results showed that PtSn is more active than PtRu and could function as a methanol tolerant oxygen reduction electro-catalyst for the cathode of a direct methanol fuel cell. Furthermore, in terms of durability, the home-prepared electrocatalyst proved to be more durable than the commercial electro-catalyst supported on carbon black, with catalyst supported on MWCNTs showing more stability than other supported electro-catalyst. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes have therefore proven in this study to be the best supporting material for electro-catalyst as catalyst supported on them showed to be more stable than commercial catalyst supported on carbon black.

Kyoto University (京都大学) / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第15584号 / 工博第3296号 / 新制||工||1497(附属図書館) / 28105 / 京都大学大学院工学研究科材料化学専攻 / (主査)教授 瀧川 敏算, 教授 木村 俊作, 教授 長谷川 博一 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当

La réaction d'oxydation électrocatalytique hétérogène de l’éthanol (ethanol oxidation reaction - EOR) en phase gazeuse a été étudiée sur une plage de température comprise entre 120 °C à 180 °C dans les conditions d’une pile à combustible à membrane d'échange de protons (proton exchange membrane fuel cell - PEM-FC).Les piles à combustible à éthanol direct (direct ethanol fuel cell - DEFC) offrent la possibilité de produire de l'énergie électrique à partir d'un carburant renouvelable doté d’une infrastructure de production et de distribution préexistante. Cependant, l'efficacité énergétique théorique élevée qui est l'un des principaux avantages de la pile à combustible ne peut pas encore être atteinte avec l'éthanol. Les raisons en sont la formation des produits d'oxydation incomplète et la présence des adsorbats inertes qui entravent l'oxydation électrocatalytique de l'éthanol. Une meilleure compréhension du mécanisme de la réaction et de l'influence des conditions de la réaction est donc cruciale pour l'optimisation de la technologie DEFC. Plusieurs études ont été réalisées sur la EOR en solution aqueuse, mais aucune jusqu'à présent en phase gazeuse.À cet effet, une cellule de test à trois électrodes a été mise au point. Celle-ci peut fonctionner à des températures allant jusqu'à 180 °C et est reliée en série à un spectromètre de masse. Les produits d'oxydation volatils présents dans l'échappement de la pile à combustible peuvent être détectés grâce à la spectrométrie de masse électrochimique différentielle (differential electrochemical mass spectrometry - DEMS). Ainsi, la quantité de dioxyde de carbone produite lors de l'oxydation complète de l'éthanol peut être mesurée et permet de tirer des conclusions sur l'efficacité de la réaction sous différentes conditions. En outre, une détection qualitative des produits secondaires de la EOR est possible.L'effet de la température sur l'EOR a été étudié sur catalyseur Pt black à des températures comprises entre 120 °C à 160 °C. L’attention s’est aussi portée sur l'effet de la concentration d’éthanol sur des catalyseurs Pt / C et PtRh / C sur support carbone à 150 °C et la façon dont l'addition de Rh influe sur la performance ainsi que la sélectivité du produit de la EOR. / The heterogeneous electrocatalytic ethanol oxidation reaction (EOR) in the gas phase has been studied in the temperature range of 120 °C to 180 °C under proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEM-FC) conditions. Direct ethanol fuel cells (DEFC) offer the possibility to gain electrical energy from a renewable fuel with a pre-existing distribution infrastructure. However the high theoretical energy efficiency that is one of the major advantages of fuel cells cannot be achieved to date with ethanol. Reasons for this are the formation of incomplete oxidation products and inert adsorbates that hinder the electrocatalytic oxidation of ethanol. A better understanding of the reaction mechanism and the influence of reaction conditions is crucial for the optimization of DEFC technology. Several studies have been done on the EOR in aqueous solution, but none so far in the gas phase.For this purpose a test cell with a three electrode assembly has been built. It can operate at temperatures up to 180 °C and is connected to a mass spectrometer for online differential electrochemical mass spectrometry (DEMS) measurements to detect volatile oxidation products in the fuel cell exhaust. Thus the amount of the complete oxidation product carbon dioxide formed during electrooxidation of ethanol can be obtained and allows drawing conclusions on the efficiency of the reaction under varying conditions. In addition a qualitative detection of the side products of the EOR is possible. The effect of temperature on the EOR has been studied on Pt black catalyst in the temperature range of 120 °C to 160 °C. Another focus is the effect of the ethanol concentration on carbon supported Pt/C and PtRh/C catalysts at 150 °C and how the addition of Rh influences the performance and product selectivity of the EOR.

This report is the result of a master’s thesis project which covers the cooling system in Volvo Cars’ fuel cell test vehicle. The purpose is to investigate if the existing cooling system in the fuel cell test vehicle works with the current fuel cell system of the vehicle, in terms of sufficient heat rejection and thus sustaining acceptable temperature levels for the fuel cell system. The project also aims to investigate if it is possible to implement a more powerful fuel cell system in the vehicle and keep the existing cooling system, with only a few necessary modifications. If improvements in the cooling system are needed, the goal is to suggest improvements on how a suitable cooling system can be accomplished. This was carried out by modeling the cooling system in the simulation software GT-Suite. Then both steady state and transient simulations were performed. It was found that the cooling system is capable of providing sufficient heat rejection for the current fuel cell system, even at demanding driving conditions up to ambient temperatures of at least 45°C. Further, for the more powerful fuel cell system the cooling system can only sustain sufficient heat rejection for less demanding driving conditions, hence it was concluded that improvements were needed. The following improvements are suggested: Increase air mass flow rate through the radiator, increase pump performance and remove the heat exchanger in the cooling system. If these improvements were combined it was found that the cooling system could sustain sufficient heat rejection, for the more powerful fuel cell system, up to the ambient temperature of 32°C.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / The direct methanol fuel cell or DMFC is emerging as a promising alternative energy source for many applications. Developed and developing countries, through research, are fast seeking a cheap and stable supply of energy for an ever-increasing number of energy-consuming portable devices. The research focus is to have DMFCs meeet this need at an affordable cost is problematic. There are means and ways of making this a reality as the DMFC is found to be complementary to secondary batteries when used as a trickle charger, full charger, or in some other hybrid fuel cell combination. The core functioning component is a catalyst containing MEA, where when pure platinum is used, carbon monoxide is the thermodynamic sink and poisons by preventing further reactions at catalytic sites decreasing the life span of the catalyst if the CO is not removed. Research has shown that the bi-functional mechanism of a platinum-ruthenium catalyst is best because methanol dehydrogenates best on platinumand water dehydrogenation is best facilitated on ruthenium. It is also evident that the addition of other metals to that of PtRu/C can make the catalyst more effective and effective and increase the life span even further. In addition to this, my research has attempted to reduce catalyst cost for DMFCs by developing a low-cost manufacturing technique for catalysts, identify potential non-noblel, less expensive metallic systems to form binary, ternary and quarternary catalysts. / South Africa

A numerical model of the steady state and alternating current behaviour of a solid-oxide fuel cell is presented to explore the possibilities to diagnose and identify degradation mechanisms in a minimally invasive way using impedance spectroscopy. This is the first report of an SOFC impedance model to incorporate degradation, as well as the first one to include the ribbed interconnect geometry, using a 2-D approximation. Simulated degradation modes include: electrode/electrolyte delamination, interconnect oxidation, interconnect/electrode interface detachment, and anode sulfur poisoning. Detailed electrode-level simulation replaces the traditional equivalent circuit approach, allowing the simulation of degradation mechanisms that alter the shape of the current path. The SOFC impedance results from calculating the cell response to a small oscillatory perturbation in potential. Starting from the general equations for mass and charge transport, and assuming isothermal and isobaric conditions, the system variables are decomposed into a steady-state component and a small perturbation around the operating point. On account of the small size of the imposed perturbation, the time dependence is eliminated, and the original equations are converted to a new linear, time independent, complex-valued system, which is very convenient from a numerical viewpoint. Geometrical and physical modifications of the model simulate the aforementioned degradation modes, causing variations in the impedance. The possibility to detect unique impedance signatures is discussed, along with a study of the impact of input parameter inaccuracies and parameter interaction on the presented results. Finally, a study of pairs of concurrent degradation modes reveals the method’s strengths and limitations in terms of its diagnosis capabilities. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Mechanical Engineering, Department of / Graduate