É conhecido que a epistasia pode ter um efeito importante na dinâmica das populações e no processo evolutivo das espécies e que está envolvida na manifestação de fenômenos biológicos importantes, tais como sobredominância, depressão por endogamia e heterose. No entanto, a epistasia é considerada como um dos aspectos mais complexos da genética quantitativa, uma vez que há limitada informação sobre os seus efeitos nos caracteres quantitativos. As estimativas dos componentes genéticos da variação, através de métodos que desconsideram a epistasia, podem estar viesadas; assim, interpretações de parâmetros genéticos importantes, como coeficientes de herdabilidade e respostas esperadas com a seleção, podem não ser adequadas. Este estudo foi realizado com os objetivos de: i) verificar a presença da epistasia para produção de grãos e alguns caracteres morfológicos em milho, ii) estimar o efeito da interação da epistasia com o ambiente e iii) estimar os efeitos epistáticos em plantas F2 para os diversos caracteres. Cem progênies F2:3 foram obtidas do cruzamento entre as linhagens L-08-05F e L-38-05D e, em seguida, foram retrocruzadas com as linhagens genitoras e com a sua geração F1 , segundo o delineamento triple testcross. As progênies de retrocruzamentos foram avaliadas em diversos ambientes no município de Piracicaba/SP, nos anos agrícolas 2008/2009 e 2009/2010, através do delineamento -latice, em esquema fatorial, com duas repetições por ambiente. Os caracteres avaliados foram produção de grãos (PG), acamamento e quebramento (ACQ), florescimento masculino (FM), florescimento feminino (FF), intervalo entre florescimentos (IF), altura da planta (AP) e da espiga (AE) e a posição relativa da espiga (PRE). A presença de epistasia foi detectada para todos os caracteres, com exceção do acamamento e quebramento. Para produção de grãos, altura da planta e intervalo entre florescimentos a epistasia do tipo aditiva x dominante e/ou dominante x dominante foi mais importante que a epistasia aditiva x aditiva; entretanto, para florescimento masculino e feminino, altura da espiga e posição relativa da espiga, todos os tipos de epistasia foram importantes. A interação entre a epistasia com ambientes foi significativa apenas para florescimento feminino e intervalo entre florescimentos. Foram identificados efeitos epistáticos não-unidirecionais significativos em plantas F2 para todos os caracteres. Estimativas da variância genética aditiva, de dominância e da interação aditiva com ambientes foram significativas para todos os caracteres. As estimativas da variância aditiva e da interação aditiva com ambientes foram significativamente (P £ 0,05) maiores que as das variâncias de dominância, para a maioria dos caracteres. As magnitudes das estimativas dos coeficientes de herdabilidade variaram de mediano a alto. Os graus médios de dominância variaram de 0,35 para PRE a 0,93 para produção de grãos. Os resultados sugerem que, na população estudada, a epistasia constitui um componente importante da variância genética, de forma que as estimativas da variância aditiva e de dominância estão viesadas e, consequentemente, os graus médios de dominância e coeficientes de herdabilidade também estão viesados. / It is known that epistasis may have important effects in the populations dynamics and in the evolutionary process of the species, and that it is involved in manifestation of important biological phenomena, such as overdominance, inbreeding depression and heterosis. However, epistasis is considered one of the more complex aspects of quantitative genetics since little information are available on its effects on quantitative traits. The estimates of genetic components of variation through methods that ignore epistasis could be biased, so the interpretation of important genetic parameters such as heritability coefficients and expected responser to selection could not be adequate. The objectives of this study were: i) verify whether epistasis is present for grain yield and for some morphological traits, ii) estimate the effect of epistasis by environment interaction and iii) estimate the epistatic effects in F2 plants. One hundred F2:3 progenies were obtained from the cross between the inbreed lines L-08-05F and L- 38-05D and then, they were backcrossed to the parental lines and to the F1 generation, according to the triple testcross. The backcrosses progenies were evaluated in several environments in the city of Piracicaba/SP in the 2008/2009 and 2009/2010 growing seasons, through the -lattice design on a factorial scheme with two replications per environment. The evaluated traits were grain yield (GY), root and stalk lodging (PL), days to anthesis (DA) and days to silk emergence (SE), anthesis-silking interval (ASI), plant height (PH), ear height (EH), and ear placement (EP). The presence of epistasis was verified for all traits, except for root and stalk lodging. For the traits grain yield, plant height and anthesis-silking interval the additive x dominance and/or dominance x dominance epistasis were most important than additive x additive epistasis, however, for days to anthesis, days to silk emergence, ear height and ear placement, all types of epistasis were important. Epistasis by environment interaction was significant only for days to silk emergence and anthesis-silking interval. Significant epistatic effects were identified in F2 plants and they were not unidirectional. Estimates of additive, dominance and the additive by environment variance were significant for all traits. Estimates of additive variance and additive by environment variance were significantly (P £ 0,05) higher than those of dominance variance for most of the traits. The magnitudes of the estimates of the heritability coefficients ranged from intermediate to high. The average level of dominance ranged from 0,35 for EP to 0,93 for GY. The results suggest that in the population under study the epistasis is an important component of the genetic variance, therefore, estimates of additive and dominance variance are biased and, consequently, the average levels of dominance and heritability coefficients are also biased.

O alho situa-se encontra entre as principais olericulturas do Brasil, sendo cultivada em praticamente todas as regiões. Apesar de ser uma planta de sistema de reprodução assexuada, o alho cultivado tem apresentado considerável variabilidade, devido à seleção de mutações espontâneas expressas em caracteres de interesse. Coleções de germoplasma dessa espécie têm sido constituídas em vários países, inclusive no Brasil. As avaliações fenotípicas da diversidade genética dos bancos de germoplasma devem ser as mais completas possíveis. Assim, este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar a divergência genética, através da análise multivariada, de 63 acessos da coleção de germoplasma do Instituto Agronômico de Campinas e Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz, com base em dois grupos de variáveis: quantitativas e qualitativas. Os dados foram obtidos de dez variáveis quantitavivas e 18 qualitativas em experimentos conduzidos a campo em 2007, em dois municípios do Estado de São Paulo: Monte Alegre do Sul e Piracicaba, no delineamento de blocos casualizados com cinco repetições. A distância de Mahalanobis (D2) e o complemento aritmético de Jaccard foram utilizados como medidas de divergência para as variáveis quantitativas e qualitativas, respectivamente. Foram aplicadas as técnicas de análise agrupamento do método de otimização de Tocher e UPGMA e correlação entre as matrizes pelo teste de Mantel. Verificou-se que as medidas de divergência foi mais influenciada pelo tipo de variável do que pelo ambiente. Avaliações fidedignas de acessos dessa cultura requerem escolha criteriosa das variáveis ou descritores e dos locais de avaliações. / Garlic is among the main vegetable crop in Brazil, being cultivated through out the country. Despite its asexual reproduction system, cultivated garlic exhibits considerable morphological variation of important traits as result of spontaneous mutations. In Brazil and several others countries germplasm collections are available. The use of accessions in breeding programs requires an adequate evaluation and characterization of the genetic materials. The objective of this work was to evaluate the diversity among 63 accessions of the germplasm collection of the Instituto Agronômico de Campinas and Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz. Multivariate analysis was used considering quantitative as well as qualitative variable, measured in two locations (Monte Alegre do Sul and Piracicaba, São Paulo State, Brazil). Randomized complete blocks were set up in both locations, with five replications, in 2007. Ten quantitative and 18 qualitative variables were considered, with divergence between accession measures using Mahalanobis (D2) distances and the complement of Jaccards similarity, respectively. Grouping was made using Tochers procedure and the UPGMA method. Correlation of distance between matrices were tested with Mantels procedure. It could be seen that nature of the variable affected measures of distance more strongly than the environment. The correlation of distances between types of variables was low as for the compared of locations. This indicates that for evaluating accessions of this crops ca careful choice of variables and also environments is necessary for obtaining reliable results.

O conhecimento dos diferentes fatores genéticos que afetam os caracteres quantitativos de importância agronômica é um pré-requisito importante para o planejamento dos programas de melhoramento genético que visam explorar de maneira eficiente a variabilidade genética disponível nas populações. A importância da epistasia no melhoramento genético das populações de milho ainda não é bem entendida, sendo assim ignorada na maioria dos estudos de herança dos caracteres de interesses para os melhoristas. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram: (i) verificar a importância da epistasia para produção de grãos e seus componentes em milho; (ii) estimar os efeitos epistáticos em cada planta F2 para estes caracteres; e (iii) verificar a importância da interação epistasia x ambientes. A geração F1 obtida do cruzamento entre as linhagens endogâmicas L08-05F e L38-05D foi autofecundada para dar origem à população F2. Uma amostra de 100 plantas F2 foi autofecundada originando 100 progênies F2:3, que foram retrocruzadas com ambas as linhagens genitoras e sua geração F1, seguindo o esquema de cruzamento do delineamento triple test cross (TTC). As 300 progênies de retrocruzamentos foram avaliadas em 11 ambientes no município de Piracicaba/SP, em delineamento alfa-látice 15 x 20, no esquema fatorial com duas repetições por ambiente. As análises de variância seguindo o modelo TTC mostraram que a epistasia total foi altamente significativa para todos os caracteres e que os efeitos epistáticos não aditivos (epistasia aditiva x dominante e/ou dominante x dominante) foram mais importantes que a epistasia aditiva x aditiva. Os efeitos epistáticos estimados em cada planta F2 para a produção de grãos e seus componentes não foram unidirecionais e, além disso, sugerem a presença de epistasia pleiotrópica para PG e a maioria dos componentes da produção. A interação epistasia x ambientes foi verificada apenas para o caráter número de fileiras espigas-1. A presença de efeitos epistáticos positivos poderiam estar contribuindo significativamente para a elevada heterose reportada para o cruzamento entre as linhagens L08-05F x L38-05D. Os resultados sugerem que a epistasia é um componente importante na arquitetura genética dos caracteres estudados, o que significa que o modelo aditivo dominante não é suficiente para descrever a variação genética da produção de grãos e seus componentes na população. Diante disso, os efeitos epistáticos não deveriam continuar sendo ignorados e sua consideração nos modelos de predição da performance dos genótipos e na seleção assistida por marcadores moleculares poderia aumentar significativamente a eficiência da seleção nos programas de melhoramento genético de plantas. / Knowledge of different genetic factors that affect quantitative traits of the agronomic importance, is an relevant prerequisite to plant breeding programs aiming to efficiently explore the genetic variability available in populations. The importance of epistasis in breeding populations of maize is still not well understood, being ignored in most inheritance studies of characters important to plant breeders. This study aimed (i) to verify the role of epistasis in grain yield and its components in maize, (ii) to estimate the epistatic effects in each F2 plant for these characters, and (iii) to verify the role of epistasis x environment interaction. The F1 generation was developed from the cross between the inbred lines L-08-05F and L-38-05D and the F2 population from the selffecundated of F1. A sample of 100 F2 plants was self-fecundated resulting in 100 F2:3 progenies, which were backcrossed with both parental lines and their F1 generation, according to the triple test cross (TTC) design. The 300 backcross progenies were evaluated in 11 environments at the municipality of Piracicaba-SP, Brazil, using an alpha-lattice 15 x 20 design in a factorial arrangement with two replications per environment. Analysis of variance based on the TTC model showed that the total epistasis was highly significant for all characters and that non-additive epistatic effects (additive x dominant and / or dominance x dominance) were more important than the additive x additive epistasis. The epistatic effects estimated in each F2 plant for grain yield and its components were not unidirectional and these estimates suggest the presence of pleitropic epistasis for yield and major yield components. The epistasis x environment interaction was observed only for the number of row eras-1. The presence of positive epistatic effects could contribute significantly to the high heterosis reported for the crossing between the inbred lines L08-05F x L38-05D. Results suggest that epistasis is an important component in the genetic architecture of the traits considered, which means that the additive - dominant model is not enough to describe the genetic variation of grain yield and its components in the population. Thus, the epistatic effects should not remain ignored and its account in the models for predicting performance of the genotypes and in the molecular marker-assisted selection would significantly increase the efficiency of selection programs in plant breeding.

A cultura do maracujá-doce (Passiflora alata Curtis, 2n = 18) não apresenta expressão comercial como à do maracujá-amarelo. No entanto, por se tratar de uma frutífera relativamente nova nos mercados, com grande potencial de expansão devido ao seu valor agregado, há necessidade de se realizarem estudos genéticos e de melhoramento visando a sua expansão comercial, que deve vir acompanhada pela geração de conhecimento científico. Assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi enriquecer o mapa genético integrado da espécie com marcadores funcionais e mapear QTL relacionados à produção e qualidade de fruto. Para tal, foi utilizada uma população F1 composta por 180 indivíduos, provenientes do cruzamento simples entre dois acessos de maracujá-doce. Para a construção do mapa de ligação, utilizou-se um algoritmo que estima, por verossimilhança, simultaneamente, a fase de ligação e a frequência de recombinação, especialmente desenhado para espécies não endogâmicas. Em paralelo, 100 genótipos dessa mesma população foram avaliados fenotipicamente em dois locais, durante dois anos, para caracteres de interesse agronômico. As análises de QTL foram feitas pelo método de mapeamento por intervalo composto e marcadores com diferentes padrões de segregação. Os dados fenotípicos mostraram que existe variabilidade genética na população F1 para ser explorada com fins de melhoramento. Um novo mapa de ligação integrado foi gerado com 1786,11 cM, com uma densidade entre marcas de 4,16 cM. Foram alocados no mapa integrado cinco marcadores do tipo RGA nos grupos de ligação I, II e VI. De um total de 39 QTL, seis QTL estão associados ao caráter diâmetro médio de fruto, quatro ao comprimento médio de fruto, cinco ao peso médio de fruto, cinco à espessura média da casca, cinco ao peso médio da casca, quatro ao peso médio da polpa, cinco ao teor de sólidos solúveis totais, três ao número médio de frutos e dois ao caráter produção. A porcentagem da variação fenotípica explicada por estes QTLs variou de 5,67, para o caráter produção, a 23,52%, para o caráter teor de sólidos solúveis totais. A despeito do número e da importância dos QTL mapeados neste trabalho, é necessário o desenvolvimento de marcadores moleculares mais informativos para a saturação do mapa genético e a obtenção de estimativas cada vez mais acuradas, visando incorporar dados moleculares em programas de melhoramento genético da cultura. / The sweet passion fruit crop (Passiflora alata, 2n = 18) does not present a commercial value as the yellow passion fruit crop. However, as it is a crop that recently entered the markets, with increasing potential for expansion due to its aggregated value, it is important to develop genetic and breeding studies to allow this expansion, which need to be accompanied by scientific knowledge generation. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to enrich the integrated genetic map of the species with functional markers and mapping QTL related to yield and fruit quality. We used an F1 population composed of 180 individuals derived from a single cross between two accessions of sweet passion fruit. For linkage map construction, a likelihood-based algorithm for simultaneously estimating linkage phase and recombination fraction, specially designed for outcrossing species, was used. Separately, 100 genotypes of the same population were phenotypic evaluated in two localities, during two years, for agronomic traits. QTL mapping was carried out by performing composite interval analysis and using markers with different segregation ratios. Phenotypic data showed that there is genetic variability in the F1 population to be exploited in breeding programs. A novel linkage map spanning 1786,11 cM, with an average marker density of 4,16 cM was constructed. We attributed five RGA markers in the linkage groups I, II and VI. Out of 39 QTL, six were associated with the trait average fruit width, four with average fruit length, five with average fruit weight, five with average skin thickness, five with average skin weight, four with average pulp weight, five with soluble solids content, three with average fruit number and two QTL were detected for fruit yield. The percentage of phenotypic variation explained by these QTL ranged from 5,67, for the trait yield to 23,52% for the trait soluble solids content. Despite of the number and importance of the QTL here mapped, new and informative markers are necessary to be developed to achieve map saturation, and providing more accurate estimates aiming at incorporating molecular information in breeding programs of the crop.

Abstract Many species and populations have perished as a consequence of human actions. During the last ~200 years, large carnivores have been almost completely extirpated from Western Europe. Large-scale wolf hunting started in Finland around the 1850s, and the population size quickly collapsed. The population was very small until the mid-1990s, when wolves started to regularly reproduce in Finland again. The wolf is an endangered species in Finland, and the biggest threat to the species’ survival is excessive hunting. In this doctoral thesis study, I inspected the genetic structure and diversity of the Finnish wolf population using neutral genetic markers. Almost 300 wolves from the contemporary Finnish population and over 50 wolves from the north-western Russia were analyzed with genetic methods. Additionally, the genetic history of the population was examined with the help of over 100 museum samples. The modern Finnish wolf population proved to be genetically as diverse as the non-endangered Eastern European and North American wolf populations. However, the genetic diversity decreased significantly during the study period (1995–2009), and was at its lowest level in the final phase of the examination. In tandem, the inbreeding coefficient rose to a relatively high level. Genetic sub-structures were observed due to social structures within wolf packs. The mean dispersal distances of wolves were approximately only 100 km. The Finnish wolf population is divided into neighbourhoods of related individuals, and their size substantially decreased during the study period. This pattern, together with the growth of the inbreeding coefficient, suggests that lost alpha individuals in wolf packs are replaced by their offspring. This study demonstrated that Russian and Finnish wolf populations are nowadays genetically differentiated. Gene flow between the populations is low, despite the geographic interconnection. Only a few possible immigrants from Russia into Finland were detected in the study. The effective size of the Finnish wolf population proved to be small, and was mainly below the often-considered critical size of 50. Historical analysis revealed that the Finnish wolf population was formerly genetically more diverse, more continuous with the Russian wolf population, and had a more than 90% larger effective size. On the basis of this study, the genetic status of the Finnish wolf population is worrying and needs to be monitored. The population should be substantially larger than today and/or the amount of gene flow higher, so that the population viability could be considered secured even in the short term. / Tiivistelmä Ihmisen toiminnan seurauksena lukuisat eliölajit ja –populaatiot ovat hävinneet. Viimeisten noin 200 vuoden aikana suurpedot hävitettiin lähes koko Länsi-Euroopasta. Laajamittainen sudenmetsästys alkoi Suomessa 1850-luvun paikkeilla ja kanta romahti nopeasti. Populaatio oli hyvin pieni lähes koko 1900-luvun, ja sudet ovat jälleen lisääntyneet yhtäjaksoisesti Suomessa vasta 1990-luvun puolivälistä. Susi on erittäin uhanalainen Suomessa ja merkittävin uhka lajin säilymiselle on liiallinen metsästys. Tarkastelen tässä väitöskirjatyössäni Suomen susipopulaation geneettistä rakennetta ja monimuotoisuutta neutraaleja geenimerkkejä käyttäen. Tutkimuksessa analysoitiin geneettisin menetelmin lähes 300 sutta nyky-Suomesta sekä yli 50 sutta Luoteis-Venäjältä. Lisäksi populaation geneettistä historiaa selvitettiin yli 100 museonäytteen avulla. Nykyinen Suomen susipopulaatio osoittautui tutkimuksessa geneettisesti yhtä monimuotoiseksi kuin ei-uhanalaiset susipopulaatiot Itä-Euroopassa ja Pohjois-Amerikassa. Geneettisen muuntelun määrä kuitenkin laski tutkimusajanjaksolla (1995–2009) merkitsevästi ollen matalin tarkastelujakson lopussa. Samanaikaisesti populaation sukusiitoskerroin nousi verrattain korkeaksi. Susipopulaatiossa havaittiin sosiaalisista rakenteista johtuvia geneettisiä alarakenteita. Susien dispersaalimatkat olivat keskimäärin vain noin 100 km. Suomen susipopulaatio on jakautunut toisilleen sukua olevien yksilöiden naapurustoiksi, joiden koko pieneni huomattavasti tutkimusajanjaksolla. Tämä yhdessä sukusiitoskertoimen kasvun kanssa viittaa susilaumojen menetettyjen alfayksilöiden korvautumiseen jälkeläisillään. Tutkimus osoitti, että Venäjän ja Suomen susipopulaatiot ovat nykyisin geneettisesti erilaistuneet. Geenivirta populaatioiden välillä on maantieteellisestä yhteydestä huolimatta vähäistä. Tutkimuksessa havaittiin vain muutamia todennäköisiä immigrantteja Venäjältä Suomeen. Suomen susipopulaation efektiivinen koko osoittautui pieneksi ollen pääosin alle kriittisenä rajana pidetyn 50:en. Historiallinen tarkastelu osoitti Suomen susipopulaation olleen aiemmin geneettisesti monimuotoisempi, yhtenäisempi Venäjän susipopulaation kanssa ja efektiiviseltä kooltaan yli 90 % nykyistä suurempi. Tutkimuksen perusteella Suomen susipopulaation geneettinen tila on huolestuttava ja tarvitsee seurantaa. Populaation tulisi olla nykyistä huomattavasti suurempi ja/tai geenivirran määrän korkeampi, jotta populaation elinvoimaisuuden voitaisiin katsoa olevan turvattu edes lyhyellä aikavälillä.

Abstract Knowledge of the determinants of the viability of populations is essential in order to undertake effective conservation and management of endangered species. In this study, long-term demographic data was combined with genetic data to study the viability of an endangered orchid species, Epipactis atrorubens. The genetic analyses revealed low levels of genetic variation and the presence of population genetic differentiation independent of the spatial scale. Low levels of seed-mediated gene flow, possibly linked to low seedling recruitment, is the likely cause of the low levels of gene flow. Indications of slow post-glacial colonisation rates were found, which together with the low gene flow predict a limited capacity of the species to shift its range to more suitable habitats after environmental change. Low genetic variation as a proxy for low evolutionary potential also suggests that the species has limited capacity to adapt to new environmental conditions. Furthermore, poor seedling recruitment lowers population viability in small populations, as highlighted by the low population growth rates. In addition, we found a strong effect of stochasticity that limits the viability of populations. Both the genetic and demographic analyses indicated low viability of the studied species and that seedling recruitment could be the main determinant for the viability. / Tiivistelmä Luonnonsuojelun perusta on populaatioiden elinkykyyn vaikuttavien tekijöiden tuntemus. Tässä väitöskirjatyössä tutkittiin uhanalaisen orkidean, tummaneidonvaipan (Epipactis atrorubens), elinkykyyn vaikuttavia tekijöitä yhdistämällä pitkäaikaisseurannoilla kerätyt demografiset aineistot geneettisin menetelmin kerättyihin aineistoihin. Lajin populaatioiden geneettisen muuntelun määrän havaittiin olevan pieni ja populaatioiden todettiin olevan geneettisesti erilaistuneita maantieteellisestä skaalasta riippumatta. Geneettisen erilaistumisen syy voi olla alhainen geenivirta, joka on seurausta vähäisestä siemendispersaalista ja huonosta taimettumisesta. Populaatioiden evolutiivista historiaa tutkittaessa havaittiin merkkejä hitaasta jääkauden jälkeisestä kolonisaatiosta, mikä yhdessä alhaisen geenivirran kanssa ennustaa, että lajilla on huono kyky siirtyä sille sopivammille alueille, jos ympäristö muuttuu. Huonoa evolutiivista potentiaalia kuvastava vähäinen geneettinen muuntelu ennustaa, että lajilla on huono kyky sopeutua uusiin ympäristöoloihin. Tämän lisäksi huono taimettuminen laskee elinkykyä etenkin pienissä populaatioissa, mikä näkyy muun muassa pienten populaatioiden matalina kasvukertoimina. Stokastinen vaihtelu vaikutti elinkykyä alentavasti, mikä pitäisikin huomioida nykyistä paremmin elinkykyanalyyseissä. Sekä geneettiset että demografiset analyysit osoittivat taimettumisen mahdollisesti olevan määräävä tekijä tummaneidonvaipan populaatioiden elinkyvylle.

Abstract Species of Lactobacillus (L.) are important starter and probiotic lactic acid bacteria used in the dairy industry. Industrial fermentation processes are prone to phage infections, which can cause severe economic losses. The main objective of this thesis was to examine in more depth the genetic variation and evolution of L. delbrueckii and L. rhamnosus phages. Aspects of interactions and co-evolution of a phage and its host have also been included in this study. In this study, the complete genomic DNA sequences of four Lactobacillus phages were determined and analyzed in detail. Specific phage genes and genetic elements were identified and studied in more depth. The L. delbrueckii phage JCL1032 was found to be a temperate phage which is able to integrate into two distinct genes of L. delbrueckii, but with exceptionally low frequency. The isolated JCL1032-lysogenic bacteria expressed a complex phage resistance against several L. delbrueckii phages. The rarely reported coexistence of phage adsorption resistance and immunity could not be explained by lysogenic conversion. Instead, the spontaneously induced JCL1032 may have provided a selective advantage to adsorption resistant lysogens. The biological activity of two group I introns residing within the terminase large subunit and tape measure genes of the JCL1032 genome (49,433 bp) was demonstrated. The diversification of L. delbrueckii phages is mainly due to insertions, deletions and recombination, as was demonstrated by comparative analyses of the LL-Ku and c5 genomes of 31,080 bp and 31,841 bp, respectively. Interestingly, both phages have possible autonomous transcription units of genes within their genomes. It seemed that evolution of the 36,366-bp genome of the L. casei phage Lc-Nu has been fuelled by deletions as well. The lytic phage Lc-Nu has an imperfect lysogeny module and the phage is genetically closely related to L. casei prophages. This clearly demonstrated that Lc-Nu has a recent temperate origin. This study provides genetic tools, genes, and regulatory elements for biotechnological applications and for developing starter strains with enhanced phage resistance properties. / Tiivistelmä Hapatteina ja probiootteina käytetyt Lactobacillus-maitohappobakteerit (L. ) ovat merkittävässä asemassa meijeriteollisuudessa. Teolliset käymisprosessit ovat alttiita faagi-infektioille, jotka voivat aiheuttaa tuotantolaitoksille huomattavia taloudellisia tappioita. Tämän tutkimuksen päätavoitteena oli syventää tietoa L. delbrueckii ja L. rhamnosus -bakteereita infektoivien faagien geneettisestä muuntelusta ja evoluutiosta. Tutkimuksessa käsitellään myös faagin ja isäntäbakteerin välistä vuorovaikutusta sekä yhteisevoluutiota. Tutkimuksessa määritettiin neljän Lactobacillus-faagin genominen DNA-sekvenssi, identifioitiin faagigeenejä ja muita geneettisiä elementtejä sekä tutkittiin niiden toimintaa. L. delbrueckiin JCL1032-faagi osoittautui tutkimuksessa temperaatiksi. JCL1032-genomi voi integroitua kahteen eri geeniin isäntäbakteerin kromosomissa, joskin lysogeniafrekvenssi on hyvin alhainen. Tutkimuksessa eristetyt JCL1032-lysogeeniset bakteerikannat olivat resistenttejä useille Lactobacillus-faageille. Osassa lysogeenisia bakteereita resistenssi ilmeni jo faagin adsorptiovaiheessa. Vastaavanlainen ilmiö on kuvattu vain harvoin aiemmin. Havaittua kompleksista resistenssiä ei voitu selittää lysogeenisella konversiolla. Sen sijaan ilmiön taustalla voi olla JCL1032-profaagien spontaani indusoituminen bakteerin kromosomista, mikä voi antaa valintaetua adsorptioresistenteille lysogeenisille bakteereille. JCL1032-genomissa (49 433 emäsparia) osoitettiin olevan kaksi biologisesti aktiivista intronia terminaasin suurta alayksikköa ja hännän mittaproteiinia koodaavissa geeneissä. LL Ku- ja c5-faagien genomien (31 080 ja 31 841 emäsparia) vertailu osoitti L. delbrueckii -faagien evoluution olevan pääasiassa seurausta insertioista, deleetioista ja rekombinaatiosta. Kummassakin genomissa oli mahdollisesti päällekkäisiä ja itsenäisesti transkriptoituvia geenialueita. Deleetiot ovat muokanneet myös L. casein lyyttisen Lc- Nu-faagin genomia (36 466 emäsparia). Faagin lysogeniamoduuli sisälsi vain osan lysogeeniseen elinkiertoon tarvittavista geeneistä. Lc-Nu on geneettisesti läheistä sukua L. casei -profaageille, mikä myös viittaa siihen, että Lc-Nu on kehittynyt temperaatista faagista. Tutkimustuloksia faagien geeneistä ja säätelyelementeistä voidaan hyödyntää hapatebakteerien faagiresistenssiominaisuuksien kehittämisessä sekä erilaisissa bioteknologisissa sovelluksissa.

In den letzten 26 Jahren konnte ein starker Anstieg von HIV-1 auf globaler Ebene beobachtet werden. Die außergewöhnliche Vielfalt von HIV-1 wird begründet durch die hohe Mutationsrate, starke Replikation, häufige Rekombination und strategische Verteilung von N-linked glycosylation sites. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die genetische Variation von HIV-1 mit besonderem Fokus auf der Rekombination und den N-linked glycosylation sites untersucht.

Over the last ten years, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have been used to identify genetic variants associated with many diseases as well as quantitative phenotypes, by exploiting naturally occurring genetic variation in large cohorts of individuals. More recently, the GWAS approach has also been applied to highthroughput RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data in order to find loci associated with different levels of gene expression, called expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL). Because of the large amount of data that is required for such high-resolution eQTL studies, most of them have so far been carried out in humans, where the cost of data collection could be justified by a possible future impact in human health. However, due to the rapidly falling price of high-throughput sequencing it is now also becoming feasible to perform high-resolution eQTL studies in higher model organisms. This enables the study of gene regulation in biological contexts that have so far been beyond our reach for practical or ethical reasons, such as early embryonic development. Taking advantage of these new possibilities, we performed a high-resolution eQTL study on 80 inbred fruit fly lines from the Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel, which represent naturally occurring genetic variation in a wild population of Drosophila melanogaster. Using a 3′ Tag RNA-sequencing protocol we were able to estimate the level of expression both of genes as well as of different 3′ isoforms of the same gene. We estimated these expression levels for each line at three different stages of embryonic development, allowing us to not only improve our understanding of D. melanogaster gene regulation in general, but also investigate how gene regulation changes during development. In this thesis, I describe the processing of 3′ Tag-Seq data into both 3′ isoform expression levels and overall gene expression levels. Using these expression levels I call proximal eQTLs both common and specific to a single developmental stage with a multivariate linear mixed model approach while accounting for various confounding factors. I then investigate the properties of these eQTLs, such as their location or the gene categories enriched or depleted in eQTLs. Finally, I extend the proximal eQTL calling approach to distal variants to find gene regulatory mechanisms acting in trans. Taken together, this thesis describes the design, challenges and results of performing a multivariate eQTL study in a higher model organism and provides new insights into gene regulation in D. melanogaster during embryonic development.

Vochysiaceae compreende uma família com duas tribos, oito gêneros e aproximadamente 250 espécies distribuídas predominantemente na América Tropical. Vochysia pyramidalis e V. tucanorum são espécies arbóreas, a primeira distribuída nas regiões nordeste e central do Brasil e a última apresentando distribuição semelhante, mas alcançando latitudes meridionais até o sul do Paraná. Estas e outras espécies de Vochysiaceae apresentam teores relativamente altos de lipídeos de sementes. Os lipídeos de sementes de V. pyramidalis assemelham-se aos da manteiga de cacau, com altos teores de ácido esteárico e ácido oleico, e os de V. tucanorum são ricos em ácidos graxos de cadeia longa, como os ácidos erúcico e docosanóico, assemelhando-se ao óleo original de colza. Os lipídeos de ambas as espécies têm, portanto, potencial valor econômico. Foi verificado que as proporções dos ácidos graxos das duas espécies podem variar entre populações de diferentes localidades. A proposta do presente trabalho foi detectar variações na distribuição química das duas espécies, a fim de apontar populações com lipídeos dotados de perfis de ácidos graxos mais convenientes para potencial uso medicinal e/ou industrial, e verificar possível conexão entre perfis químicos e genéticos. O último foi estabelecido com base em marcadores AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism). Foram coletadas sementes e fragmentos de folhas de 3-9 indivíduos de V. pyramidalis de populações de Alto Paraíso de Goiás (GO), Andaraí (BA), Palmeiras (BA) e UnB-Brasília (DF), e 5-10 indivíduos de V. tucanorum de populações de Bauru (SP), Botucatu (SP), Santana do Riacho (MG), Perdões (MG), IBGE-Brasília (DF), Ibicoara (BA) e Sengés (PR). Os lipídeos das sementes foram extraídos com hexano. Foram seguidos métodos padronizados para a obtenção dos correspondentes ésteres metílicos dos ácidos graxos. Estes foram analisados por CG/FID e a identificação das substâncias foram baseadas na comparação dos tempos de retenção com aqueles de amostras autênticas de ésteres metílicos de ácidos graxos. A distribuição dos ácidos graxos das duas espécies foi analisada pelo coeficiente de Distância Euclidiana Simples e pelo método de agrupamento UPGMA e Análise de Componente Principal (PCA), usando o programa de computador Fitopac 1.6.4. Dois agrupamentos principais foram obtidos, cada um correspondendo a uma das espécies de Vochysiaceae. Entretanto, foi notada uma alta semelhança entre amostras da mesma espécie. Em cada espécie, não foi obtido nenhum agrupamento coerente relacionado à populações e localidades. A única exceção correspondeu aos indivíduos da população de V. pyramidalis de Alto Paraíso de Goiás, que se agrupou isoladamente de outras amostras da mesma espécie. Análises de AFLP foram realizadas com DNA extraído de fragmentos de folhas preservados em silicagel, seguidos de procedimentos padronizados de digestão, ligação, amplificações pré-seletiva e seletiva, e análise em seqüenciador automático. Três e quatro combinações de iniciadores foram usadas para V. pyramidalis e V. tucanorum, respectivamente. Os fragmentos obtidos foram utilizados como caracteres e analisados pelo método de evolução mínima Neighbor-Joining, usando distância de Nei & Li por meio do programa de computador PAUP v. 4.0, e Análise de Coordenada Principal (PCO) usando o programa de computador Fitopac 1.6.4. Assim como ocorreu com os caracteres químicos, pequenas distâncias foram obtidas ao se comparar amostras de cada uma das duas espécies de Vochysia. Em análises individuais de cada espécie, não foi obtido nenhum agrupamento coerente com as respectivas populações. Os resultados do presente trabalho sugerem que a dispersão de indivíduos de V. pyramidalis e V. tucanorum nas presentes áreas de distribuição é um evento recente, não tendo decorrido tempo suficiente para alcançar diferenças químicas e genéticas detectáveis. Essa observação é coerente com estudos da dispersão de sementes e de pólen, que mostrou uma alta capacidade de dispersão de espécies de Vochysia. / The Vochysiaceae comprise a family with two tribes, eight genera and approximately 250 species distributed predominantly in tropical America. Vochysia pyramidalis and V. tucanorum are tree species, the former distributed in Central, Northeastern and Southeasten Brazil and the latter having similar distribution, but reaching meridional latitudes as far as the south of Paraná. These two species and other Vochysiaceae have been shown to have relatively high levels of seeds lipids. The seed lipids of V. pyramidalis resemble cocoa butter, with high levels of stearic and oleic acids, while V. tucanorum seeds are rich in long chain fatty acids, such as erucic and docosanoic, resembling the original rapeseed oil. Hence, lipids of both species of Vochysiaceae have potential economic value. It has been reported that proportions of seed fatty acids of the two species may vary among populations of different localities. The aim of the present work was to detect variations in chemical profiles of the two species, in order to point out populations with lipids endowed with fatty acid profiles more convenient for potential medical and/or industrial uses, and verify possible connection between chemical and genetic profiles. The latter was established on basis of AFLP (amplified fragment length polymorphism) markers. Seeds and leaf fragments were collected of 3-9 individuals of V. pyramidalis from populations of Alto Paraíso de Goiás (GO), Andaraí (BA), Palmeiras (BA) and UnB-Brasília (DF) and 5-10 of V. tucanorum from populations of Bauru (SP), Botucatu (SP), Santana do Riacho (MG), Perdões (MG), IBGE-Brasília (DF), Ibicoara (BA) and Sengés(PR). Seed lipids were extracted with hexane. Standardized methods were followed to obtain the corresponding fatty acids methyl esters. These were analyzed by GC/FID and identification of the substances were based on comparison of retention times with those of authentic samples of fatty acid methyl esters. The distribution of fatty acids of the samples of the two species was analyzed by Simple Euclidean Distance coefficients, clusthering method UPGMA and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) using Fitopac 1.6.4 as computer program. Two main clusters were obtained, each corresponding to one of the Vochysiaceae species. However, a high similarity was noted among samples of the same species. Within each species, no clusters were obtained coherent with populations and localities. The only exception corresponded to individuals of a population of V. pyramidalis of Alto Paraíso de Goiás, which grouped apart from other samples of the same species. AFLP analyses were carried out with DNA extracted from leaf fragments preserved in silicagel, following the standardized procedures of digestion, ligation, pre and selective amplifications and analysis in automatic sequencer. Three and four primer combinations were used regarding V. pyramidalis and V. tucanorum, respectively. Fragments obtained were scored as characters and analyzed by the Neighbor-Joining method, using Nei & Li distances in a computer program implemented in PAUP v. 4.0 and Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCO) using Fitopac 1.6.4 as computer program. As with chemical characters, small distances were obtained comparing samples of each the two Vochysia species. In the analyses of individuals of each species, no clusters were obtained coherently with the respective population. The results of the present work suggest that the dispersion of individuals of V. pyramidalis and V. tucanorum into the present areas of distribution is a recent event, no enough time having been elapsed to reach detectable chemical and genetic differences. This observation is coherent with studies of seed and polen dispersal, which have shown a high disperal capacity of Vochysia species.