The accurate development of the wiring between the billions of neurons in our brain is fundamental to brain function. Development of this connectivity relies on activity-dependent modification of synapses similar to those that underlie learning and memory. Glutamate is the principal excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian brain and several brain disorders result from altered glutamatergic receptor signalling (Catania et al., 2007; Lau and Zukin, 2007). Genes encoding glutamate receptor associated proteins have a high incidence of mutation in cognitive disorders, especially X-linked mental retardation (MR)(Laumonnier et al., 2007). MR has long been associated with altered cortical connectivity, particularly dendritic spine dysgenesis. There is also an emerging view that aberrant local protein synthesis within dendrites and protein trafficking to dendrites underlies some forms of MR (Kelleher and Bear, 2008; Pfeiffer and Huber, 2006; Zalfa and Bagni, 2005). Most studies examining the role of glutamatergic receptors in MR have focused on adults. Little is known about how these MR genes regulate brain development despite their neurodevelopmental aetiology. Fragile X mental retardation (FXS) is the most common form of inherited MR and results from the loss of fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP). FMRP is a RNA binding protein and is hypothesised to have a role in protein trafficking from nucleus to sites of synapses, and regulating local protein synthesis at sites of synapses (Bagni and Greenough, 2005). A prevalent theory of FXS causation is ‘metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) theory of fragile X’, which postulates that all functional consequences of mGluR (predominantly mGluR5)-dependent protein synthesis maybe exaggerated in FXS (Bear et al., 2004). Primary somatosensory cortex (S1) of rodents provides an excellent model system to study the role of MR genes in development because of its stereotypic, glutamate receptor-dependent, anatomical development (Barnett et al., 2006b; Erzurumlu and Kind, 2001). Hannan et al., (2001) reported that genetic deletion of mGluR5 results in loss of ‘barrels’, the anatomical correlates of rodent whiskers in S1. Chapter 3 extends these findings to show that there is expression of mGluR5 as early as P4 in S1 prior to segregation of layer 4 cells into barrels suggesting a tropic role for glutamate in barrel formation. The expression of mGluR5 is postsynaptic during barrel formation and does not regulate tangential or radial cortical development. Its effects on barrel segregation are dose dependent and are not due to a developmental delay. During late S1 development, loss of mGluR5 results in decreased spine density suggesting a role in synaptogenesis. Supporting this hypothesis in mGluR5 mutant mice there is a general decrease in expression of synaptic markers in early S1 development. Chapter 4 explores the role of FMRP in cortical development. FMRP is expressed early in S1 development with peak expression prior to synaptogenesis at P14. It is expressed postsynaptically at P7 and pre and postsynaptically at P14. FMRP does not regulate cortical arealisation during barrel formation but results in decreased barrel segregation. In the absence of FMRP, biochemical studies show altered expression of glutamatergic receptors in the neocortex P7 and P14 suggesting altered glutamatergic receptor composition at synaptic sites. During late S1 development, loss of FMRP results in increased spine density in layer 4 spiny cells. Together these data indicate a role for FMRP during early and late S1 development. Chapter 5 directly tests the mGluR theory of FXS by examining whether genetic reduction of mGluR5 levels rescues anatomical phenotypes characterised in Fmr1-/y mice. The defect in barrel formation in Fmr1-/y mice is partially rescued by reducing mGluR5 levels. However, layer 4 spine density in Fmr1-/y mice does not appear to be rescued. Chapter 6 explores the expression patterns of three key synaptic MAGUKs (Membrane associated guanylate kinases) PSD95, SAP102 and PSD93, one of which (PSD95) is regulated by FMRP (Zalfa et al., 2007) and the others which have putative binding sites for FMRP. MAGUKs tether glutamatergic receptors to their associated signalling complexes at the postsynaptic membrane and also regulate glutamatergic receptor trafficking (Collins and Grant, 2007; Kim and Sheng, 2004). The immunohistochemical expression profiles of PSD95, SAP102 and PSD93 show dynamic regulation during S1 development that is unaffected by loss of FMRP (at P7), and biochemical data indicates that basal levels of these MAGUKs in neocortex are unaltered at P7 and P14 in Fmr1-/y mice. In Sap102-/y and Psd95-/- mice, there is altered expression of several synaptic proteins biochemically providing evidence for differential roles of SAP102 and PSD95 in regulating expression of glutamatergic receptors at synaptic sites during early S1 development. This thesis demonstrates that synaptic proteins associated with MR are expressed early in development and display regulatory roles in cellular processes governing S1 formation. An understanding of their role in early brain development would be critical in fully appreciating when and where they exert their regulatory effects, and this in turn would be beneficial in designing therapeutic interventions.

Antidepressants are generally believed to exert their clinical efficacy by enhancing 5-HT transmission. Interestingly, sustained administration of selective serotonin (5-HT) reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) strongly suppresses in the first few days the firing activity of 5-HT neurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), thereby severely hampering the increase of 5-HT in target regions. Remarkably, the firing activity of 5-HT neurons gradually recovers over the time course of treatment and this recovery is believed to be accounted for by the desensitization of 5-HT1A somatodendritic autoreceptors. Here, we sought to investigate whether additional mechanisms might contribute to the dynamic regulation of excitability of 5-HT neurons during the course of SSRI treatments. Borrowing from the well-described homeostatic strengthening of glutamatergic synapses onto cortical pyramidal neurons following prolonged periods of inactivity, we hypothesized that a similar homeostatic-like regulation of synaptic strength might be operant on 5-HT cells during an SSRI treatment. To test this possibility, we used whole-cell electrophysiological recordings on acute midbrain slices to monitor glutamatergic synapses onto 5-HT neurons. We found that a two-day treatment with the SSRI citalopram induced a robust reduction in both the amplitude and frequency of AMPAR-mediated mEPSCs. We also show that this depression in synaptic strength, induced by an SSRI, is transient since excitatory drive onto 5-HT neurons was enhanced by 7 days of treatments. Altogether, these results document a dynamic regulation of glutamatergic synaptic transmission during the time course of a prolonged treatment with an SSRI. Further elucidation of the cellular and molecular mechanisms driving this synaptic plasticity might identify novel pharmacological target to shorten the delay of antidepressant action.

The neurobiology of anxiety-related disorders is associated with impaired neuroplasticity. The glutamate/NO/cGMP pathway has been proposed to play a key role in neuroplasticity and neurodevelopment. It was demonstrated in recent reports that chronic co-administration of the phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) inhibitor sildenafil and the antimuscarinic agent atropine exerts antidepressive-like activity in rats, and that this effect is related to PDE5 inhibition, with consequent elevation of cGMP levels and enhanced protein kinase G stimulation. The current study investigated possible anxiolytic effects of the chronic co-administration of sildenafil and atropine in stress-sensitive Flinders Sensitive Line (FSL) rats. FSL rats received vehicle control, fluoxetine (15 mg/kg), atropine (1 mg/kg), sildenafil (10 mg/kg) or sildenafil plus atropine via intraperitoneal administration, either acutely 30 minutes prior to testing (acutely) or daily for 14 days (chronically). FRL control rats received only vehicle. Thereafter anxiety-like behaviour was evaluated in the social interaction test (SIT - acute) and elevated plus maze (EPM - acute and chronic). The current study also compared to different ways to score the EPM, namely the percentage time spend in the open arms of the EPM and both the number of full and half body open arm entries, and also implemented defecation on the EPM as a measure of anxiety. Vehicle-treated FSL rats exhibited more anxiety-like behaviour than FRL rats in both the SIT and EPM following acute treatment, and in the EPM following chronic treatment. Acute treatment with fluoxetine exerted anxiogenic activity in the SIT and EPM, but anxiolytic activity following chronic administration, as observed in the EPM. In acute treatments neither sildenafil nor sildenafil plus atropine yielded any significant effects on anxiety-like behaviour. However, following chronic treatment, sildenafil exerted anxiolytic activity in the EPM by increasing the time spend in the open arms (45.72% ± 9.94% vs. 20.80% ± 9.94%, P<0.001). Atropine exerted a small anxiolytic response (30.71% ± 8.40% vs. 20.80 ± 9.94%), whereas atropine co-administration was additive to sildenafil alone and yielded an enhanced anxiolytic effect in the elevated plus maze (59.56% ± 4.95% vs. 20.80% ± 9.94%, P<0.001), relative to vehicle control. The percentage time spend in the open arms was scored in the EPM, the results suggested that the chronic treatment with sildenafil plus atropine exert an anxiolytic-like effect in FSL rats and the number of fecal droppings did not increase which is also an indication of an anxiolytic-like effects of the treatment. The current study demonstrated that the chronic treatment with sildenafil, alone or in combination with atropine, exhibit an anxiolytic-like action in stress-sensitive rats. In addition, the data support the clinical potential of using PDE5 inhibitors as antidepressant and anxiolytic strategy and warrant further investigation. Furthermore the study supports the previously proposed key role of the glutamate/NO/cGMP pathway in the neurobiology of anxiety-like disorders, and as an important target for drug development. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011

Biomolecular systems, in particular those involving proteins and their constituents, have been the focus of much research in the last century. The relationship between experiment, development of models and simulation has enabled vast improvements in our knowledge of subjects such as protein folding and the processes by which key biomolecules affect the human body. In particular, vital information can be obtained from understanding the building blocks of polypeptides and proteins involved in these processes. This work focuses on simulating two such building blocks; glutamate, the salt of the proteinogenic amino acid, glutamic acid, and glycine-proline-glutamate, or GPE, a related tripeptide. Both are important in neurotransmission processes in the brain. Glutamate is the most abundant neurotransmitter in the central nervous system and GPE is an important neuroprotective agent. This work aims to elucidate the key structural properties of aqueous solutions of glutamate and GPE, focusing on the solute-solute as well as the solute-solvent interactions. Both systems were considered with classical empirical potentials using the CHARMM22 force-fi eld. The glutamate system has also been studied using Car-Parrinello Molecular Dynamics and classical parallel tempering. In both the aqueous glutamate and GPE systems the molecules formed a large proportion of bifurcated bonding motifs with both carboxyl groups, but not with the amin (N-terminal) of the molecules. Bifurcated bonds form between solute molecules as well as in the solute-solvent interactions. The structure of the glutamate solution was found to be dependent on the initial con figuration and thus the parallel tempering simulations enabled better sampling of the conformational landscape. In addition, in the glutamate system single water molecules form a stable structure by bonding to both the amine (N-terminal) and C -carboxyl within the same glutamate molecule.

Master of Science / Department of Animal Sciences and Industry / Joel DeRouchey / Michael Tokach / Six experiments using a total of 2,974 nursery pigs were used to determine the effects of monosodium glutamate (MSG) and amino acids (AA) on nursery pig growth performance. Experiments 1 and 2 evaluated increasing dietary MSG for nursery pigs. Increasing dietary MSG up to 2% without balancing for sodium and chloride content decreased nursery pig performance, and feeding sodium levels equivalent to 1% MSG also decreased performance. When sodium and chloride were balanced, there were marginal effects of increasing dietary MSG on pig performance. Experiment 3 was conducted to determine the standardized ileal digestible (SID) lysine (Lys) requirement for pigs weighing 7- to 11- kg. The SID Lys requirement was estimated to be 1.45% and greater than 1.60% depending on the statistical model applied for both ADG and G:F. This experiment served to validate the SID Lys requirement for use in formulating diets for the subsequent experiments. Experiment 4 evaluated increasing SID valine (Val) to Lys ratio for nursery pigs weighing 7- to 10- kg. A SID Val:Lys ratio of 62.9% optimized ADG. Maximum feed efficiency (G:F) was captured using 71.7% SID Val:Lys ratio, however, 99% of maximum was achieved with SID Val at 64.4% of Lys. For ADFI, maximum performance was at 74% SID Val:Lys ratio, with 99% of maximum intake achieved at 68%. Experiments 5 and 6 investigated increasing SID isoleucine (Ile) to Lys ratio for 6- to 11- kg pigs. When ADG and ADFI were modeled, broken-line models reported maxima of 52.0% Ile:Lys ratio while quadratic models were as high as 64% of Lys.

Au delà de son rôle métabolique essentiel, le glutamate est le neurotransmetteur excitateur majeur dans le système nerveux central des mammifères. C’est pourquoi la neurotransmission glutamatergique, peu étudiée à cause de l’absence d’outils spécifiques, est l’objet d’un intérêt croissant pour tenter d’élucider son implication dans la physiopathologie de troubles psychiatriques tels que la schizophrénie et la dépression principalement caractérisés par des déficits affectifs, cognitifs, exécutifs dans lesquels le glutamate serait impliqué. Récemment, la caractérisation moléculaire et fonctionnelle de trois transporteurs vésiculaires du glutamate, nommés VGLUT1-3, a permis une approche expérimentale plus spécifique de la neurotransmission glutamatergique. Les VGLUTs diffèrent par leur distribution anatomique. En effet, les neurones VGLUT1 sont majoritairement corticaux alors que ceux exprimant VGLUT2 sont principalement sous-corticaux. VGLUT3, par contre, est retrouvé dans des neurones hétérologues à savoir sérotoninergiques, cholinergiques ou GABAergiques. Ainsi, l’objectif de cette thèse a été d’étudier chez la souris la neurotransmission glutamatergique dans des modèles pharmacologiques et génétique de maladies psychiatriques comme la dépression ou la schizophrénie. Il s’agit d’une part (i) de mesurer l’impact sur la neurotransmission glutamatergique de traitements aigus et chroniques par des psychotropes chez des souris sauvages et d’autre part (ii) d’une étude neurochimique et comportementale de la neurotransmissionn glutamatergique d’une lignée de souris mutantes (DAT-KO) dont l’invalidation du gène du transporteur de la dopamine en fait un modèle pertinent pour certains symptômes de la schizophrénie et de l’hyperactivité avec déficit attentionnel. Dans un premier temps, l’état de la neurotransmission glutamatergique corticale et sous-corticale a été évalué en mesurant l’expression soit des ARNm (hybridation in situ), soit des protéines (immunoautoradiographie et/ou immunofluorescence) de VGLUT1 et 2. De plus, la densité de certains sous-types de récepteurs glutamatergiques par la technique de radioliaison a été mesurée. Dans un second temps, des tests comportementaux pour mesurer l’activité locomotrice et tester les performances cognitives des souris DAT-KO ont été réalisés en réponse soit à des traitements pharmacologiques proglutamatergiques, soit en modifiant des conditions environnementales. Les résultats obtenus après traitement aigu par différents psychotropes ne révèlent pas de différence dans l’expression des ARNm et des protéines de VGLUT1 et de VGLUT2 dans l’ensemble des régions étudiées. En revanche, les résultats obtenus après un traitement chronique montrent une augmentation significative de l’expression des ARNm de VGLUT1 dans des régions frontales (cortex, hippocampe) et des protéines de VGLUT1 (cortex, hippocampe, thalamus) [...]. En revanche, l’halopéridol, un antipshychotique typique n’a pas d’effet. A l’inverse, les antipsychotiques typiques et atypiques induisent une augmentation significative des ARNm de VGLUT2 dans des structures sous-corticales (noyaux thalamiques médians) et des protéines (cortex prélimbique, striatum limbique), alors que les antidépresseurs n’ont quant à eux, aucun effet. Les données obtenues avec les souris DAT-KO montrent une légère diminution de l’expression des ARNm de VGLUT1 dans le cortex et des protéines de VGLUT1 dans le striatum comparée aux souris sauvages. En revanche, aucune variation dans l’expression de VGLUT2 n’a été observée entre les deux génotypes. [...] Ce travail permet de proposer les VGLUTs comme marqueurs spécifiques pour l’étude de certaines pathologies neuropsychiatriques comme la dépression ou la schizophrénie et ainsi de développer de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques ciblant le système glutamatergique / Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system of mammals. The molecular characterization and functional three carriers vesicular glutamate, appointed VGLUT-3, allowed an experimental approach more specific glutamatergic neurotransmission. Thus, the objective of this thesis was to study in mice glutamatergic neurotransmission in pharmacological and genetic models of psychiatric diseases like depression or schizophrenia. The results obtained after chronic treatment by various psychotropic show that the molecules with an antidepressant activity increases VGLUT1 and those with an antipsychotic increase VGLUT2. The data obtained with mice invaided for the dopamine transporter (DAT-KO) show that agents proglutamatergiques reduce behavioral deficits in these mice. All these data reinforces the idea that VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 define two subsystems regulated so differencial by two major classes of psychotropic drugs and can offer the VGLUTs as specific markers for the study of certain neuropsychiatric disorders

Introdução: existe evidencia de que o sabor umami detecta os alimentos ricos em proteínas e aminoácidos, o que presumivelmente interfere na ingestão destes alimentos. Há experimentos publicados que relacionam quadros de desnutrição ou alimentação deficiente de determinados aminoácidos, com o consumo voluntário de soluções ou ração contendo tais aminoácidos. Objetivos: os objetivos deste trabalho foram: a caracterização das preferências gustativas para diferentes aminoácidos no rato normal e o efeito da desnutrição protéica sobre essas preferências. Metodologia: o estudo compreendeu duas fases distintas: na primeira foram feitas comparações de consumo de soluções de aminoácidos isolados (10 gramas por litro de água) em um período curto (5 dias). As comparações foram realizadas em 4 grupos distintos, e cada grupo foi composto de 20 animais: 10 controles e 10 desnutridos. A desnutrição foi induzida pelo oferecimento de ração hipoprotéica (5% de caseína na primeira fase e 7,5% de caseína na segunda fase). As soluções de aminoácidos comparadas em cada grupo foram: glutamato e glicina, glutamato e valina, triptofano e glicina e triptofano e valina, todas na concentração de 10g/ L. Na segunda fase foram realizadas comparações de consumo de soluções contendo glutamato mais um aminoácido não essencial (glicina) e glutamato mais um aminoácido essencial (lisina ou triptofano) por um período de 42 dias. Esta segunda fase foi composta de 3 grupos de animais, sendo um formado por 10 animais controles e 10 desnutridos que não receberam soluções, outro grupo com a mesma divisão de animais, mas que receberam soluções de glutamato mais glicina e glutamato mais lisina, e o último grupo recebeu soluções de glutamato mais glicina e glutamato mais triptofano. Resultados, discussão e conclusão: observou-se, tanto na fase 1 como na fase 2, que: a glicina e o glutamato em solução são muito atrativos; a de lisina é atrativa 4 mas em menor intensidade do que as anteriores; a de valina é pouco atraente; o consumo da solução de triptofano foi tão pequena que esta é possivelmente aversiva. Os resultados da fase 1 indicaram que o consumo de soluções de glutamato e de valina de animais desnutridos foi significativamente maior do que o de animais controles. Entretanto, no subgrupo de ratos desnutridos, o consumo da solução de glutamato correlacionou-se positivamente com o peso do animal. Na fase 2 os animais desnutridos, nas duas últimas semanas experimentais, mas não nas anteriores, apresentaram consumo significativamente maior de lisina e triptofano; a comparação do consumo de solução de glicina foi impossibilitada pelo consumo excessivo e esgotamento dos frascos. Também se constatou que os animais da segunda fase apresentaram esteatose hepática. Entre os desnutridos, o consumo de solução de lisina foi inversamente correlacionado com o peso corporal / Umami is the taste quality associated with several amino acids, especially the amino acid L-glutamate, and evidence exists that umami indicates the presence of amino acids, peptides and related structures in foodstuffs, which may bear relevant nutritional implications. The objectives of the study were to establish the normal rat preferences among a set of amino acids (glycine, glutamate, lysine, valine and tryptophan), and determine wether the rat protein malnutrition modifies the preferences and/or the avidity for these amino acids. In a initial set of experiments, bottles containing 50 ml of the amino acid solutions whose palatability were to be compared were presented to each animal for a 5-day period, and volumes consumed during the last 3 days were measured, and the bottles were refilled to their original levels. The left-right positions of the bottles were reversed every day. At the termination of the testing periods, the volumes of test solutions remaining in each bottle were measured, and the consumed volumes calculated. In a second set of experiments, solutions of glutamate plus glycine, glutamate plus lysine or glutamate plus tryptophan were presented to the animals for 8 weeks; after that , for 2 weeks, the glutamate was removed so that solutions of glycine, lysine or tryptophan only were presented to the animals. The volumes remaining in the bottles were measured and the volumes consumed calculated at termination of each testing period. On the basis of the ratios of volume of solutions consumed/ body weight the avidity for the amino acid were inferred. Protein malnutrition was induced by a diet with 5% -7.5 % casein as the only protein source; malnutrition was consistently induced as demonstrated by severe reduction in weight gain and increase in liver fat content. Normal rats demonstrated great avidities for glycine and glutamate, moderate avidity for lysine, low avidity for valine and no avidity for tryptophan. Rats with protein malnutrition a similar profile of avidities, however they significantly grater avidities for 6 glutamate, lysine, valine, and tryptophan, but not for glycine than normal rats. Among the rats with with protein malnutrition, greater the body weight, the greater the glutamate solution comsumed/body weight and the lower the body weight, the greater the lysine solution consumed /body weight. Conclusions: Avidity for amino acid solutions is widely variable, and protein malnutrition enhances the avidity for glutamate, valine, lysine, and tryptophan solutions but not for glycine solution

O sistema circadiano das aves é composto pela retina, a região homóloga aos núcleos supraquiasmáticos de mamíferos (NSQ) e a glândula pineal. A retina apresenta muitos eventos fisiológicos rítmicos, como por exemplo os movimentos das células fotorreceptoras em vertebrados não mamíferos, a expressão de opsinas, regeneração do cromóforo visual e produção e liberação de melatonina e dopamina. Todos estes eventos rítmicos são coordenados para prever alterações nas condições luminosas que ocorrem durante o dia, otimizando a função retiniana. Neste trabalho foi investigada a expressão de componentes chave de um sistema circadiano, incluindo os dois genes de melanopsina, Opn4x e Opn4m, os genes de relógio Clock e Per2, e os genes das enzimas chave da síntese de melatonina, N-Acetiltransferase, e de dopamina, Tirosina Hidroxilase, em células da retina de embriões de galinha. Culturas primárias de retina de embriões de galinha com 8 dias foram preparadas no ZT0 (quando as luz é acesa) e semeadas na densidade de 107 células por frasco de 25 cm2 . As células foram mantidas em ambiente úmido, com 5% CO2, a 40o C, em escuro constante, fotoperíodo 12C:12E, fotoperíodo 12C:12E seguido de escuro constante, ou em escuro constante na presença e na ausência de glutamato 100 &#956;M por 12 h. A extração de RNA total foi feita ao longo de 24 horas com intervalo de três horas tendo início no ZT0 do sexto dia. As amostras foram submetidas a RT-PCR seguido de PCR quantitativo para a quantificação de RNAm. Para confirmar a expressão da proteína OPN4x foi realizado ensaio imunohistoquímico com anticorpos anti-melanopsina de galinha desenvolvidos em coelho. Também foi feita a quantificação da concentração das proteínas OPN4x, CLOCK e TIROSINA HIDROXILASE através da técnica de Western Blot. A quantificação do RNAm em escuro constante não apresentou ritmos de transcrição para nenhum gene. Já as células mantidas em fotoperíodo 12C:12E apresentaram padrões rítmicos de transcrição para Clock, Per2, Opn4m, N-Acetiltransferase e Tirosina Hidroxilase. Glutamato 100 &#956;M foi eficaz em induzir ritmo em Clock, e inibiu drasticamente a expressão de Tirosina Hidroxilase e, apenas mais pontualmente, de Opn4x e Opn4m. Ensaios de viabilidade celular e fragmentação de DNA por citometria de fluxo demonstraram que essa inibição não foi resultante de ação tóxica ou apoptótica do glutamato. O neurotransmissor não teve qualquer efeito sobre a transcrição de Per2 e de N-Acetiltransferase. A quantificação protéica não indicou a presença de ritmo para CLOCK, OPN4x ou TIROSINA HIDROXILASE. A grande variabilidade inter-ensaios nos resultados de quantificação protéica sugere uma menor sensibilidade e precisão para esse método, quando comparado a PCR quantitativo. Nossos resultados indicam que as células de retina de embrião de 8 dias de galinha em cultura já contêm um relógio funcional, porém, este necessita do ciclo claro-escuro ou glutamato para sua sincronização. / The avian circadian system is composed by the retina, the mammalian homolog region of the supra-chiasmatic nucleus (SNC) and the pineal gland. The retina itself shows many rhythmic physiological events, such as movements of photoreceptor cells, opsin expression, retinaldehyde re-isomerization, melatonin and dopamine production and release. Altogether these rhythmic events are coordinated to predict environmental changes in light conditions during the day, optimizing retina function. In this work we investigated the expression of key components of a circadian system, including the two melanopsin genes, Opn4x, Opn4m, as well as the Clock, Per2, N-Acetyltransferase and Tyrosine Hidroxylase genes in chick embryo retinal cells. Primary cultures of chicken retina from 8-day-old embryos were prepared at ZT0 (lights on) and seeded at the density of 107 cells per 25 cm2 culture flask. The cells were kept in a humidified incubator in a 5% CO2 atmosphere at 40o C in constant dark, in 12L:12D, in 12L:12D followed by constant dark, or in constant dark in the absence or presence of 100 &#956;M glutamate for 12 h starting at ZT0 of the fifth day in vitro. Total RNA extraction was performed along 24 hours every three hours starting at ZT0 of the sixth day. The samples were submitted to RT-PCR followed by quantitative PCR for mRNA quantification. To analyze the Opn4x expression in these cells we performed an immunocytochemistry analysis with antibodies anti-chicken melanopsin developed in rabbit. We also quantified the protein levels of OPN4x, CLOCK AND TYROSINE HYDROXYLASE by Western Blot. The mRNA quantification showed no rhythm of transcription for any gene in cells kept in constant dark. However under a light-dark cycle, Clock, Per2, Opn4m, N-Acetyltransferase and Tyrosine Hydroxylase presented rhythm patterns of transcription. 100 &#956;M glutamate was able to induce rhythmic expression of Clock, and strongly inhibited the expression of Tyrosine Hydroxylase and, just punctually, of Opn4x and Opn4m. Assays of cell viability and DNA fragmentation using flow cytometry demonstrated that the inhibition did not result of glutamate toxic or apoptotic actions. The neurotransmitter had no effect on Per2 and N-Acetyltransferase transcription. Protein quantification by Western Blot showed no rhythmic oscillation of CLOCK, OPN4x or TYROSINE HYDROXYLASE. The great variability inter-assays seen in the results of protein quantification suggests that this method is less precise and sensitive than quantitative PCR. The present data show evidences that chicken embryonic retinal cells contain a functional circadian Clock. However light-dark cycle or glutamate stimuli are needed to its synchronization.

Encontramos no bulbo diversos núcleos, assim como diversos neurotransmissores, relacionados com a manutenção da pressão arterial. Dentre os núcleos, o núcleo do trato solitário se destaca por ser um dos principais moduladores do sistema nervoso autônomo, sendo o primeiro a receber aferências dos barorreceptores e encaminhá-los para diversos outros núcleos. Dentre estes neurotransmissores, encontramos o glutamato e as catecolaminas, sendo ambos essenciais para a manutenção da pressão arterial. É sabido que a atuação de transmissores em células do sistema nervoso pode levar a alterações em outras vias de neurotransmissão, alterando assim a resposta das células a estímulos. Levando em consideração a importância do glutamato e das catecolaminas na modulação da pressão arterial, e que tanto os receptores glutamatérgicos quanto catecolaminérgicos podem interferir no metabolismo celular e gerar mudanças estruturais nos neurônios, cogitamos que a atuação do sistema glutamatérgico poderia modular o sistema catecolaminérgico. Neste trabalho, avaliamos se o sistema glutamatérgico e catecolaminérgico podem interagir em culturas de células do bulbo de ratos neonatos, a partir de tratamentos das culturas com glutamato ou noradrenalina. Observamos que o tratamento destas culturas com glutamato leva a uma redução nos níveis de proteína e de mRNA da enzima tirosina hidroxilase e do receptor _2 adrenérgico. A modulação do sistema glutamatérgico a partir de tratamentos com noradrenalina não mostrou variações significativas. Concluímos que o sistema glutamatérgico pode modular o sistema catecolaminérgico em células do bulbo de ratos neonatos, e que esta modulação pode ser importante na regulação da pressão arterial pelos núcleos bulbares. / It is found in the medulla oblongata several nuclei, as well as several neurotransmitters, related with the maintenance of the arterial pressure. Among these nuclei, the nucleus of the solitary tract stands aside for being one of the main modulators of the autonomic nervous system, being the first to receive afferences from baroreceptors and to send their stimuli to other nuclei. Among these neurotransmitters, glutamate and the catecholamines are both essentials to the maintenance of the arterial pressure. It is known that the stimulation of brain cells by neurotransmitters can result in changes in other neurotransmitter pathways, changing the cell response to certain stimuli. Taking in consideration the importance of glutamate and the catecholamines in the modulation of the arterial pressure, and that both of them can interfere in the cellular metabolism and create structural changes in neurons, we have speculated that the stimulation of the glutamatergic system could modulate the catecholaminergic system. In this work, it was evaluated if the glutamatergic and catecholaminergic systems could interact in cell cultures of the medulla oblongata of newborn rats, from treatments of the cultures with glutamate or noradrenaline. It was found that the treatment of these cultures with glutamate leads to a reduction in the protein and mRNA levels of the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase and the receptor _2 adrenergic. The modulation of the glutamatergic system from treatments with noradrenaline did not show significative variation. We concluded that the glutamatergic system can modulate the catecholaminergic system in medulla oblongata cell cultures, and that this modulation can be important in the regulation of the arterial pressure by nuclei present in the medulla oblongata.

O nosso grupo está explorando como alternativa para a identificação de novas estratégias de tratamento o reposicionamento de drogas. Nesse contexto, nosso laboratório mostrou que memantina, um antagonista de receptores de glutamato NMDA, apresenta uma atividade tripanocida no ciclo de vida do T. cruzi, in vitro. Com base nessas informações, avaliamos o efeito da memantina em animais infectados com a cepa Y. O tratamento apresentou uma redução da parasitemia (40%) no 8º dpi e redução da carga parasitária no tecido cardíaco no 15º dpi. Uma vez que a cepa Y invade preferencialmente macrófagos, avaliamos o efeito de memantina em células RAW 264.7. Memantina diminuiu a produção de NO por células estimuladas com LPS, diminuiu o Ca2+i, e não houve uma redução de EROs. Memantina também interferiu no ciclo intracelular do parasita, reduzindo o número de células infectadas. Nossos resultados sugerem que o tratamento com memantina pode direcionar o sistema imune de modo a modular os receptores de tipo NMDA, através de um efeito direto ou indireto produzido pelo tratamento. / The search for new therapeutic targets has been of extreme importance for the specific treatment of Chagas disease. Our group is exploring as an alternative, a strategy for drug repurposing. In this context, our laboratory showed that memantine, an antagonistic of NMDA glutamate receptors, has a trypanocidal activity along the life cycle of T. cruzi, in vitro. Based on this information, we evaluated the effect of memantine in animals infected with Y strain. The treatment showed a reduction of parasitemia (40%) in 8th dpi and reduced parasitic load in cardiac tissues at 15th dpi. As the Y strain preferably invades macrophages, we evaluated the effect of memantine in RAW 264.7 cells. Memantine decreased NO production by cells stimulated with LPS, decreased Ca2+i, and did not cause a reduction in ROS. Memantine also interfere with the intracellular parasite cycle, reducing the number of infected cells. Our results suggest that treatment with memantine can target the immune system to modulate the NMDA receptor, through direct or indirect effect caused by the treatment.