Introduction: Whole blood transfusions are indicated for the resuscitation of patients with hemorrhagic trauma. In Sweden, whole blood is stored for 14 days at 4°C. If possible, refrigerated blood is rewarmed to 37°C before transfusion to avoid hypothermia. Platelets contribute to hemostasis and can be activated with several pathways. During storage, shedding of platelet surface receptors takes place. Further research on how platelet storage in whole blood and rewarming before transfusion affect platelets is needed. Aim: The aim was to study how storage in whole blood and rewarming to 37°C affect platelet function, platelet activatability, and changes in platelet surface receptors. Method: Whole blood from two healthy donors was stored for 14 days. During these 14 days, two blood samples were taken on day 0, before and after leukocyte reducing filtration, 1, 3, 7, and 14. One of the two blood samples from each whole blood product was tested at room temperature and the other was rewarmed to 37°C. The blood samples were mixed with antibodies and platelet agonists and analyzed on a flow cytometer. The blood samples were also analyzed on a cell counter. Results: This study shows distinct changes in platelet spontaneous activation, platelet count, and platelet receptor shedding by increased storage time in cold-stored whole blood and even more with rewarming to 37°C. Conclusion: This study shows that during storage, spontaneous platelet activation and shedding of GPIb and GPIIb increases while platelet count decreases. All these factors are likely affecting the platelet function and hemostatic function negatively.

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Les glycoprotéines d'enveloppe du virus de l'immunodéficience humaine de type 1 (VIH-1) sont impliquées dans une étape importante du cycle de réplication, l’entrée virale. La liaison de la glycoprotéine gp120 à CD4 contribue à la fixation du virus à la cellule cible et déclenche des changements conformationnels dans celle-ci afin de permettre à la gp120 se lier au récepteur de chimiokine CCR5 ou CXCR4. Contrairement à tous les enveloppes du groupe phylogénétique M, qui possède une sérine à la position 375, ceux du clade CRF01_AE possèdent une histidine. Ce résidu fait partie d'une cavité "Phe43" dans laquelle le résidu 43 de CD4 fait contact avec la gp120. Ici, nous avons évalué les conséquences fonctionnelles du résidu 375 en le remplaçant par une serine dans deux enveloppes CRF01_AE (CM244 et 92TH023), la sérine étant présente dans tous les autres clades du groupe M. Nous avons observé que la réversion de l'acide aminé 375 vers une sérine entraine une perte de fonctions des deux Envs CRF-AE tel que mesuré par une perte de l'infectivité et leur capacité à médier la fusion cellule à cellule. Le phénotype observé était la conséquence d’une très faible interaction avec CD4, qui n’était pas le résultat d’une enveloppe défectueuse ou instable. Par conséquent, la modification de l’acide aminé en position 375 a aussi altéré la sensibilité de neutralisation du virus par sCD4, qui en était diminuée. De plus, on a observé que certaines mutations des couches topologiques du domaine interne de la gp120 ont permis un rétablissement partiel de la fonctionnalité en restaurant l’interaction avec CD4. Les niveaux d’infectivité et de fusion des mutants des couches topologiques se rapprochant des enveloppes sauvages de CRF01_AE suggèrent une coévolution entre la cavité phe43 et les résidus du domaine interne de la gp120. Une compréhension des différences qui existent entre les enveloppes de CRF01_AE et les enveloppes de virus du groupe M, permettra d’avoir une idée sur la fonctionnalité des glycoprotéines d'enveloppe. Il serait possible de mettre en évidence des mécanismes impliqués dans les changements conformationnels des Envs qui permettent l’évasion des anticorps dirigés contre elle. De plus, ces possibles différences dans les enveloppes de CRF01_AE pourraient être exploitées pour le développement des différentes approches vaccinales. / The envelope glycoproteins (Env) from human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) mediate viral entry. The binding of the HIV-1 gp120 glycoprotein to CD4 contributes to the attachment of the virus to the target cell and triggers conformational changes in gp120 that allow high-affinity binding to the chemokine receptor CCR5 ou CXCR4. Contrary to all other Envs from the same phylogenetic group M, which possess a serine at position 375, the majority of CRF01_AE strains possess a histidine. This residue is part of the “Phe43” cavity, where residue 43 of CD4 engages with the gp120. Here we evaluated the functional consequences of replacing this residue in two CRF01_AE Envs (CM244 and 92TH023) by a serine, present in all the other clades from group M. We observed that reversion of the 375 amino acid to a serine resulted in a loss of functionality of both CRF_AE Envs, as measured by a loss in infectivity and their ability to mediate cell-to-cell fusion. The observed phenotype was the result of a weak interaction with CD4, which was not due to defective processing or trimer stability of these Envs. Therefore, modification of the amino acid at position 375 has also altered the sensitivity of virus neutralization by sCD4, which was reduced. Importantly, mutation of certain residues of the gp120 inner domain layers were able to partially restore wild-type levels of infectivity and cell-to-cell fusion to both CRF01-AE H375S Envs, suggesting a co-evolution of the Phe43 cavity and the gp120 inner domain. An understanding of the differences between the CRF01_AE envelopes and envelopes from group M presenting a serine at position 375 will provide a better knowledge about the functionality of the envelope glycoproteins. Among other things, it would be possible to identify the mechanisms involved in conformational changes of glycoproteins as well as those involved in the escape of envelope recognition by Env specific antibodies. Moreover, these possible differences in CRF01_AE envelopes could be exploited for the development of different vaccine approaches.

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) kill virally infected and tumourigenic cells via the regulated secretion of specialised secretory lysosomes. These secretory lysosomes contain cytolytic effector molecules, such as perforin and granzymes, which are able to induce apoptosis in target cells. Secretion occurs at the contact point between the CTL and its target, in a highly structured region termed the immunological synapse (IS). Upon formation of the IS, CTL undergo polarisation of their microtubule cytoskeleton and movement of the microtubule organising centre (MTOC) to the IS. Secretory lysosomes are then able to polarise along microtubules, fuse with the plasma membrane and deliver their effector molecules to the IS. The Adaptor Protein 3 complex (AP-3) sorts transmembrane proteins to lysosomes and deficiency in AP-3 results in missorting of proteins from the lysosomal to plasma membrane. CTL from AP-3 deficient patients, who suffer from Hermansky-Pudlak Syndrome Type 2 (HPS2), show reduced killing of target cells. This thesis describes two new patients with HPS2, both with homozygous mutations in the AP3B1 gene, which codes for the β3A subunit of the AP-3 complex. CTL from the new HPS2 patients show reduced cytotoxicity, which is shown here to be due to impaired secretory lysosome polarisation towards the IS. This impairment is common to HPS2 CTL, but varies between patients. In order to determine differences between HPS2 and wild type CTL, the localisation of a range of lysosomal, cytolytic, transmembrane, inhibitory and activation marker proteins is examined. This shows that in HPS2 CTL, LAMP1, CD63 and CD9 are potential AP-3 cargos. In addition, a possible effect on the key lytic effector perforin is identified. Preliminary experiments to allow proteomic comparison of HPS2 and wild type CTL are also presented. Further investigation of these results will help to shed light on the mechanisms involved in secretory lysosome polarisation in CTL.

Le Virus de l’Hépatite C (VHC) infecte 170 millions de personnes dans le monde mais aucun vaccin n’est encore disponible. Le processus d’entrée du VHC dans les hépatocytes représente une cible prometteuse pour le développement de stratégie thérapeutique et est finement régulé par un nombre par les deux glycoprotéines d’envelope du VHC, E1 et E2, assemblé sous la forme d’un hétérodimère incorporé à la surface des particules virales. Cependant, comment E1 et E2 dialoguent, modifient leurs conformations et se coordonnent mutuellement au cours de l’entrée reste encore à être définit. Dans ce travail, nous avons souhaité clarifier l’interrelation entre E1 and E2 au cours de l’entrée afin d’ouvrir la voie à de potentiels stratégies thérapeutiques. Nous avons tout d’abord examiné si une importante divergence génétique entre des hétérodimères E1E2 pouvait être liée à l’existence de fonctions particulières. Nous avons observé une spécialisation des E1E2 isolé des Lymphocytes B pour l’infection de ces mêmes cellules mais pas des hépatocytes, suggérant que de nouvelles fonctions peuvent émerger de la plasticité conformationel de E1E2. Dans un second temps, nous sommes parvenus à identifier un dialogue conservé entre E1 et le domaine III de E2 (E2 DIII), critique pour les processus d’attachement et de fusion du VHC. Nous avons aussi montré grâce à une approche bio-informatique l’existence d’une co-évolution très importante entre E1 et E2. Cette approche a également prédit de potentiel changement de conformations au sein de l’hétérodimère, suggérant que E2 est sans doute une protéine de fusion capable de se replier sur elle-même via le repliement de son domaine III et l’aide de E1. Ainsi, ces différents travaux soulignent l’implication de E1 et E2 au sein de dialogues fins et complexes, qui régulent à la fois les conformations et les fonctions de l’hétérodimère. Ainsi, cela suggère que l’hétérodimère E1E2 représente plutôt une unité fonctionnelle et structurale unique, plutôt que l’association de deux protéines aux fonctions distinctes. / Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) infects more than 170 million people worldwide but no vaccine is available yet. HCV entry may represent a promising target for therapies and is mediated by two envelope glycoproteins, E1 and E2, assembled as heterodimer onto the virus surface. However, how E1 and E2 dialog, structurally rearrange and act together during these steps remain poorly defined. In this work, we aimed to clarify the interrelation of E1E2 during virus entry, thus opening ways to potential new therapeutic strategies. We first investigated whether a strong genetic divergence between E1E2 heterodimers may highlight distinct functions. We observed that B-cell derived E1E2 were specialized for B-cell infection, suggesting that new functions can emerge from the E1E2 conformational plasticity. In a second approach, we identified a conserved dialog between E1 and the domain III of E2 that was critical for virus binding and fusion. Moreover, a computational model predicted a strong co-evolution between E1 and E2 as well as potential structural rearrangements, suggesting that HCV E2 is likely a fusion protein able to fold over via its domain III through the mediation of E1. Altogether, these different works highlight that E1 and E2 are involved in complex dialogs that regulate the heterodimer folding and functions, suggesting that E1E2 heterodimer is more likely a single functional protein entity than an association of two proteins with specific functions.

Au cours de l’infection par le virus Ebola (EBOV), plusieurs glycoprotéines solubles sont massivement libérées à partir de cellules infectées mais le rôle précis de ces protéines virales n’a pas encore été identifié. Nous émettons l'hypothèse que l'altération de l’hémostase et du système et vasculaires observée au cours de l'infection à virus Ebola pourrait être, au moins en partie causée par ces glycoprotéines solubles. Ainsi pour la première fois, nous avons identifié les cibles cellulaires de la protéine soluble « shed GP » d’Ebola et nous avons démontré que sa partie glycosylé peut activer les cellules dendritiques et les macrophages non infectés, induisant, par le récepteur TLR4, la sécrétion de cytokines pro-inflammatoires. Nous démontrons aussi que l'activité de la shed GP est neutralisé lors de l'addition de la MBL, une protéine connue pour interagir avec certains motifs glycosylés présents à la surface de différents micro-organismes. Nous avons également montré que la shed GP active la perméabilité des HUVEC de façon directe et indirecte, via la libération de cytokines. En conclusion, cette étude suggère que la shed GP peut être l'un des principaux facteurs responsables de la stimulation précoce des cellules immunitaires qui produisent alors de grandes quantités de cytokines pro-inflammatoires, des éléments qui, combinés avec la réplication massive du virus et les dommages cellulaires induits par le virus, peuvent conduire à un syndrome de type choc septique et une mortalité élevée. / During Ebola virus (EBOV) infection several soluble glycoproteins are released in high amounts from infected cells but as yet still no clear role has been identified for these viral proteins. We hypothesized that the impairment of coagulation and vascular systems observed during EBOV infection could be, at least in part, due to these soluble glycoproteins.Here, for the first time we identify the cellular targets of EBOV soluble protein shed GP and provide evidence that through its glycosylation, shed GP can activate non-infected dendritic cells and macrophages, inducing, through TLR4, the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. We also demonstrate that shed GP activity is negated upon addition of Mannose-Binding sera Lectin (MBL), a molecule known to interact with sugar arrays present on the surface of different microorganisms. We have also revealed that shed GP activates permeability of HUVECs both directly and indirectly through cytokine release. Overall, this study suggests that shed GP may be one of the principal factors responsible for the early stimulation of immune cells that then produce high amounts of proinflammatory cytokines that, combined with massive virus replication and virus-induced cell damage, can lead to a septic shock-like syndrome and high mortality.

L'hépatite B chronique reste un problème majeur de santé publique. Sous traitement par analogues nucléos(t)idiques (NUCs), l'objectif thérapeutique ultime est la clairance de l'antigène (Ag) HBs. Nous avons étudié l'influence de la variabilité des protéines d'enveloppe, impliquées dans l'entrée cellulaire du virus et cibles de la réponse immune, sur la clairance de l'Ag HBs. Des patients traités par NUCs ayant obtenu une clairance de l'Ag HBs (resolvers) ont été appariés à des non-resolver. Deux mutations combinées sT125M/sP127T, caractéristiques des non-resolver, étaient associées à une baisse de l'antigénicité prédite. L'analyse par séquençage haut débit montrait une plus grande variabilité du gène S chez les non resolver. Des tests fonctionnels portant sur des particules virales mutées en sT125M et sP127T sont en cours. Ces données moléculaires sont en faveur de l'existence de "motifs" spécifiques dans le gène S associés à la persistance de l'Ag HBs sous traitement par NUCs / Hepatitis B virus (HBV)-related chronic infection remains difficult to eradicate. On treatment by nucleos(t)ide analogues (NUCs), HBs Antigen (Ag) clearance is the ultimate but difficult therapeutic goal. Our aim was to investigate how variability of HBV envelope protein, crucial in viral cellular entry and targeted by host immune response, could play a role in HBsAg clearance. HBV chronically infected patients, treated by NUCs with HBsAg clearance (resolver) were matched with patients without HBsAg clearance (non resolver). Combined mutations sT125M/sP127T, associated with HBsAg persistence, displayed a lower predicted antigenicity. Ultra Deep Sequencing of S gene showed a higher variability in non resolver. Functional assays on viral particles including sT125M and sP127T mutations versus reference particles are in progress. As a conclusion, molecular features observed in non NR argue in favor of a different pattern in HBV S characteristics according to variable NUCs efficiency

O prion celular (PrPc) é uma glicoproteína ligada à membrana plasmática por uma âncora de GPI (glycosylphosphatidylinositol). A sua isoforma anormal (PrPsc) é uma molécula infecciosa que causa várias doenças neurodegenerativas em mamíferos. A etiologia dessas doenças está associada a uma mudança conformacional pós-traducional de PrPc que ocorre após sua internalização (Prusiner, 1998). Na tentativa de desvendar as funções fisiológicas de PrPc, nosso grupo tem identificado e caracterizado as interações celulares que PrPc participa. A primeira delas é a interação entre PrPc e STI1 (Stress Inducible Protein 1). Essa interação transduz sinalização por cAMP e PKA levando a neuroproteção contra morte celular programada (Chiarini e cols, 2002; Zanata e cols, 2002). A segunda é a interação específica que existe entre PrPc e as proteínas da matriz extracelular, laminina e vitronectina, contribuindo para os processos neuronais, tais como crescimento, manutenção (Graner e cols., 2000 a e b) e regeneração dos neuritos (Hajj e cols., submetido), além da formação de memória de curta e longa duração (Coitinho e cols., submetido). Na primeira parte deste trabalho, procuramos investigar os genes regulados pelos sinais resultantes dessas interações e também pela remoção de PrPc usando a técnica de \"differential display\'\' RT-PCR. Na segunda parte do trabalho, caracterizamos que a interação PrPc - laminina é capaz de induzir uma sinalização transitória de cálcio, a qual ocorre mesmo na ausência de cálcio do meio extracelular. PrPc é uma molécula que cicla continuamente entre a membrana plasmática e os compartimentos intracelulares. Estudos recentes têm correlacionado o processo de internalização de PrPc com alguns dos seus papeis fisiológicos, tais como, homeostase de Cu2 + (Brown, 2001 ), interação com receptor de laminina (Gauczynski e cols, 2001) e até na conversão de PrPc para PrPsc (McKinley e cols, 1991; Arnold e cols, 1995). Portanto, na terceira parte deste trabalho, caracterizamos a localização e o tráfego celular de PrPc mostrando que PrPc está localizado na membrana plasmática e em compartimentos intracelulares e que trafega pelo Golgi, membrana plasmática, endossomos iniciais e de reciclagem. Foram mapeados ainda domínios na região amino-terminal responsáveis pela internalização de PrPc e na região carboxi-terminal como participantes da via secretora. Este trabalho contribuiu para o esclarecimento de alguns eventos biológicos relacionados à sinalização e ao tráfego de PrPc. Estes achados são de grande importância para a determinação das funções celulares de PrPc e ainda dos mecanismos envolvidos com as doenças relacionadas com esta molécula. / The cellular prion protein (PrPc) is a glycoprotein anchored to the plasma membrane by GPI (Glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol). Its abnormal isoform (PrPsc) is the infectious protein responsible for several neurodegenerative diseases. The main etiology of the prion diseases is related to conformational changes in the PrPc molecule, which occur after its internalization (Prusiner, 1998). In order to elucidate the physiological functions of PrPc, our group identified and characterized interactions between PrPc and other cellular molecules. The first is the interaction between PrPc and STI 1 (Stress Inducible Protein 1). This interaction has an important role in the neuroprotection against apoptosis through cAMP and PKA signaling (Chiarini et al., 2002; Zanata et al., 2002). PrPc also interacts with proteins of the extracellular matrix such as laminin and vitronetin. These interactions contribute for neurite outgrowth, maintenance and regeneration (Graner et al., 2000 a and b; Hajj et al., submitted) and also in memory formation (Coitinho et al., submitted). In the first part of this work we have applied the differential dysplay RTPCR technique in order to identify genes that are regulated by PrPc - STI 1 interaction and also by the deletion of PrPc. In the second part we have demonstrated that PrPc-laminin interaction induces transient calcium signaling in neuronal cells, which occurs even in the absence of extracellular calcium. PrPc cycles continuously between the plasma membrane and intracellular compartments. This mechanism is associated with some of the physiological function of PrPc, such as Cu2+ homeostasis (Brown, 2001 ), interaction with laminin receptor (Gauczynski et al., 2001 ), and PrPc conversion into PrPsc (McKinley et al., 1991; Arnold et al., 1995). Thus, in the third part of this project, we have characterized the PrPc localization at the cell surface and in intracellular compartments. The protein trafficking through Golgi apparatus, plasma membrane, early and recycling endosomes was also defined. Moreover, we have determinated that N-terminus PrPc domain is responsible for its internalization while C-terminus participates in PrPc delivery. Therefore, this work has contributed to elucidate biological events related to the cell signaling and trafficking of PrPc, which are important for the characterization of PrPc physiological functions and to understand the pathological mechanisms related to this molecule.

β2-glicoproteina I (β2GPI), uma proteína circulante produzida em fígado e intestino, foi estudada no fígado e íleo de ratos durante sepse controlada (S) ou translocação bacteriana (TB) com E. coli R-6. A sepse foi induzida por inoculação endovenosa de 109 UFC/mL/100g. A TB, pelo confinamento de 10 mL 1010 UFC/mL, no intestino. Grupos controle receberam veículo. Após 2h, os animais foram sacrificados. β2GPI foi espressa nos tecidos de todos animais, em cortes fixados em metacarn e impregnados com parafina, após reação com anti-β2GPI amplificada com Envision-AP. O fígado mostrou dois padrões citoplasmáticos distintos. Um padrão difuso, atribuído à síntese protéica, aumentado somente no grupo S e um padrão focal, invariável. No íleo, a mucosa foi negativa; a submucosa, o endotélio sangüíneo e linfático, positivos. Esta marcação aumentou somente no grupo TB. Os resultados sugerem a participação da β2GPI na regulação local da resposta hepática e intestinal de fase aguda. / β2-glycoprotein I is a circulating protein (β2GPI) produced in liver and intestines. β2GPI was studied in liver and ileum in rats under controlled sepsis (S) or bacterial translocation (BT) with E. coli R-6. Sepsis was induced by endovenous inoculation with 109 CFU/mU100g. BT was induced by confining 10 mL 1010 CFU/mL, to the intestine. Control groups received vehicle. After 2h, animals were sacrificed. Metacarn fixed, paraffin embedded tissue slices were reacted with monoclonal anti-β2GPI, revealed with Envision-AP and hematoxylin counterstained. Ali animals stained for β2GPI in the liver and ileum. Liver presented two distinct cytoplasm staining patterns. The diffuse pattern, ascribed to protein synthesis, increased in group S animals only. The spotted pattern was invariant. Ileum mucosa was negative, while submucosa, blood and Iymphatic endothelium were positive. The ileum staining increased after TB, only. Results underline the hypothesis for locally regulated liver and intestine contribution to acute phase response modulation.