Studies focusing syntopic species help to understand how they partition resources and coexist. The objective of this work was to describe the social system, habitat use and diet of the hoary fox (Pseudalopex vetulus) and the crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous), in an area of cattle farms in Central Brazil. It is also reported a confrontation between the two species, observed during a study on the behavioral repertory of the hoary fox. Social system and habitat use were studied by direct observation of foxes in the field and diet, through scat analysis. Crab-eating foxes were found in pairs in 34 (59%) of 58 encounters and hoary foxes were solitary in 58 (84.0%) of 69 encounters, with no seasonal variation in the group size of both species. During one encounter of a crab-eating fox couple, the male vocalized to call the female that had remained behind. Hoary foxes were sighted in grazed pasture in a higher proportion (84%) than crab-eating foxes (67%) and they were never found in forest neither in swamp. Besides, both species were rarely seen together, and the only encounter registered ended in a conflict, with the crab-eating fox driving the hoary fox out. Twenty-seven taxa were identified in the diet of the two canids, with the crab-eating fox (n = 32 scats) consumed fruits, insects (mainly Orthoptera and Coleoptera) and vertebrates (most Cricetidae and Squamata) and the hoary fox (n = 23 scats) ate primarily termites (Isoptera). Results indicate that crab-eating fox couples keep more tight bonds than hoary fox couples. The coexistence of both species may be related to the detected differences in habitat use and diet. / Estudos enfocando espécies sintópicas ajudam a entender como elas partilham os recursos e coexistem. O objetivo deste trabalho foi descrever o sistema social, o uso do habitat e a dieta da raposa-do-campo (Pseudalopex vetulus) e do cachorro-do-mato (Cerdocyon thous), em uma área de fazendas de gado no Brasil Central. Também é relatado um confronto entre as duas espécies observado durante um estudo sobre o repertório comportamental da raposa-do-campo. O sistema social e o uso de habitat foram estudados a partir da observação direta dos animais no campo e a dieta, através da análise de fezes. Os cachorros-do-mato foram encontrados em duplas em 34 (59%) de 58 encontros e as raposas-do-campo estavam solitárias em 58 (84%) de 69 encontros, não havendo variação sazonal no tamanho de grupo das duas espécies. Durante um dos encontros de uma dupla de cachorro-do-mato, o macho vocalizou para chamar a fêmea que havia ficado para trás. As raposas-do-campo foram avistadas em pastagens em uma proporção maior (84%) que os cachorros-do-mato (67%) e nunca foram encontradas em florestas ou brejos. Além disso, as duas espécies raramente foram vistas juntas, sendo que o único encontro registrado terminou em conflito, com o cachorro-do-mato expulsando a raposa-do-campo. Vinte e sete táxons foram identificados na dieta dos dois canídeos. O cachorro-do-mato (n = 32 fezes) consumiu frutos, insetos (principalmente Orthoptera e Coleoptera) e vertebrados (a maioria Cricetidae e Squamata) e a raposa-do-campo (n = 23 fezes) se alimentou principalmente de cupins (Isoptera). Os resultados indicam que casais de cachorros-do-mato mantêm laços mais estreitos que casais de raposa-do-campo. A coexistência de ambas as espécies pode estar relacionada às diferenças detectadas no uso do habitat e na dieta. / Mestre em Ecologia e Conservação de Recursos Naturais

A ordem primata apresenta uma grande diversidade de modos de organização social, desde espécies consideradas solitárias até aquelas em que os indivíduos de um grupo permanecem o tempo todo juntos. Macacos-prego (Cebus spp.) geralmente vivem em grupos estáveis e coesos, sem a formação de subgrupos. No entanto, sua organização social pode ser mais flexível. Dois estudos anteriores, conduzidos com populações de Cebus nigritus da Mata Atlântica, indicaram a divisão de grupos em subgrupos, mas não concluíram se os processos que foram observados eram de divisão permanente de um grupo grande ou se essas populações assumiam a organização social do tipo de fissão-fusão. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar se os grupos de macacos-prego do Parque Estadual Carlos Botelho (PECB) caracterizam-se como sociedades do tipo fissão-fusão ou se a formação de subgrupos ocorre apenas como um estágio temporário pré-divisão permanente. No período de Janeiro de 2003 a Março de 2006, foram acompanhados dois grupos sociais, com os indivíduos adultos reconhecidos. Dados de outros grupos foram coletados de forma oportunística. Para verificar se o grupo estava forrageando de forma coesa ou dividido em subgrupos, era feito um censo dos membros do grupo a cada hora e, para o registro da composição dos subgrupos foi contado o número de machos adultos, de fêmeas adultas e de juvenis. Para avaliar a disponibilidade de alimento foram distribuídas 153 armadilhas \"pitfall\" ao longo da área de uso dos animais. Os dados sobre comportamento (locomoção, descanso, forrageamento e locomoção mais forrageamento) e dieta (frutos, invertebrados e folhas) foram registrados por amostragem de varredura, a cada 5 minutos. Também foram anotados o tempo de depleção das fontes de frutos (FTFS) e o número de indivíduos que se alimentaram juntos na mesma árvore (tamanho da subunidade de alimentação). Todos os grupos de macacos-prego observados no PECB organizaram-se em sociedades de fissão-fusão, dividindo-se constantemente em subgrupos de tamanho e composição variável, com associações preferenciais entre pares de macho e fêmea, composição multi-macho/multi-fêmea e ausência de dominância entre as fêmeas. Todas essas características observadas se assemelham com as características de chimpanzés e de primatas neotropicais que se organizam em fissão-fusão. A principal diferença entre os macacos-prego e essas espécies é a dispersão sexual do grupo natal. Em macacos-prego os machos migram entre grupos, enquanto em sociedades de fissão-fusão os machos são filopátricos. Em relação aos dados ecológicos, o FTFS e o tamanho das subunidades de alimentação tiveram valores baixos para todos os grupos de macacos-prego, indicando que as fontes de frutos não sustentam todo o grupo por ter recursos de pobre qualidade. Houve uma relação entre tamanho de subgrupo e padrão da oferta de alimento: quanto maiores e mais uniformemente distribuídas as fontes de frutos no habitat das quais os animais estavam se alimentando, maior o subgrupo. Portanto, os macacos-prego do PECB ajustam o tamanho de grupo para reagir às variações ecológicas, em função de baixa disponibilidade de frutos e assim, essa grande flexibilidade permite que eles se adaptem a novos ambientes e se comportem de modo a aumentar sua aptidão. / The primate order presents a great diversity of social organization, from species considered solitary to those where the individuals of a group remain together all the time. Capuchin monkeys (Cebus spp.) generally live in stable and cohesive groups, without the formation of subgroups. However, their social organization can be more flexible. Two former studies on two populations of Cebus nigritus from the Atlantic Forest suggested the occurrence of subgrouping, but the authors could not conclude whether the observed processes were due to a permanent division of a large group or whether these populations were actually fission-fusion societies. The objective of this study was to investigate whether the capuchin monkey groups of the State Park Carlos Botelho (PECB) can be characterized as a fission-fusion society or subgrouping is a temporary strategy prior to a permanent division of a large group. From January 2003 to March 2006, two social groups were followed, with the adult individuals recognized. Data from other groups were collected in an opportunistic way. To verify whether the group was foraging in a cohesive way or divided in subgroups, a census of the group members was performed at each hour and, and the number of adult males, adult females and juveniles were counted to analyze the composition of the subgroups. In order to evaluate the food availability 153 pitfall traps were distributed along the long home range. Data about behavior (locomotion, rest, foraging and locomotion more foraging) and diet (fruits, invertebrates and leaves) were registered by scan sampling every 5 minutes. The depletion time of fruit sources (FTFS) and the number of individuals that fed together in the same tree (size of feeding subunity) were recorded. All the capuchin monkey groups observed in the PECB were organized as a fission-fusion society, splitting into subgroups of variable size and composition, with preferential associations between pairs of male and female, composition multi-male/multi-female and absence of dominance among females. All these observed characteristics are similar to chimpanzees and neotropical primates which present fission-fusion. The main difference among capuchin monkeys and these species are the sexual dispersion from natal group. In capuchin monkeys the males migrate among groups, while in fission-fusion societies the males are philopatric. In relation to the ecological data, the FTFS and the feeding subunity size had low values for all the capuchin monkey groups, indicating that the fruit sources at PECB are poor quality resources and do not support all group members. There was a relation between subgroup size and pattern of food availability: the largerer and more uniformly distributed the fruit sources the animals were feeding, the larger the subgroup. Therefore, capuchin monkeys at PECB adjust their group size in response to the ecological variations, due to the low fruit availability and thus, this great flexibility allows them to adapt to a new environment and to behave in order to increase their fitness.

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2016-03-30T12:40:36Z No. of bitstreams: 1 suzanastutzreis.pdf: 2764480 bytes, checksum: 7958f56283eeeb80e170580b590eda3d (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2016-04-24T02:51:51Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 suzanastutzreis.pdf: 2764480 bytes, checksum: 7958f56283eeeb80e170580b590eda3d (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-24T02:51:51Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 suzanastutzreis.pdf: 2764480 bytes, checksum: 7958f56283eeeb80e170580b590eda3d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-02-01 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O uso do hábitat pelos organismos é diretamente influenciado pela disponibilidade dos recursos. Esta disponibilidade é afetada por parâmetros físicos que variam no espaço e no tempo. Assim, a área de vida, a organização social e o comportamento das espécies no ambiente são usualmente determinados pela distribuição em mosaico dos recursos. Diante disto, este estudo visou investigar os descritores bióticos e abióticos explicativos do uso do hábitat pelo boto-cinza (Sotalia guianensis) na Baía de Benevente (ES), e identificar possíveis áreas de ocupação preferencial (hábitats chave). De janeiro a dezembro de 2012 foram realizadas 34 expedições a bordo de duas embarcações - com 4 e 14 metros - e coletou-se diversas variáveis ambientais ao longo de transecções paralelas. A partir de expedições sistemáticas (n=17) e também de oportunísticas (n=17) foram registrados 33 encontros com grupos de botos. Das 142 horas e 3 minutos de esforço amostral, 7 horas e 8 minutos (5,02%) foram de observação direta dos animais. A cada avistagem registrava-se a localização geográfica do agrupamento, seu tamanho e composição, bem como o comportamento. As médias de número de indivíduos e de infantes por grupo foram de 5,24 (±3,25) e 1,03 (±1,29), respectivamente. A análise espacial das avistagens revelou que os encontros ocorreram em 30 (23,44%) das 128 células da malha quadriculada criada no ArcGIS 9.3.1. para representar a área amostrada, evidenciando que a ocupação do hábitat pelos golfinhos não é uniforme (χ2= 22,97; p<0,001). A área utilizada pelos grupos (estimada através de Mínimo Polígono Convexo) foi de 48,14 km2 e representa 39,40% da área estudada (122,18 km2), demonstrando a concentração significativa dos botos em determinadas regiões (χ2= 22,43; p<0,001). Através de modelos lineares generalizados, verificou-se que a distribuição espacial dos botos pode ser explicada pela latitude (regressão GLM, z = 2,57; p<0,02), pela profundidade (regressão GLM, z=2,18; p<0,03) e pela maré enchente (regressão GLM, z=2,39; p<0,02). Em relação às características do grupo, observou-se que o tamanho aumenta em função do oxigênio dissolvido na água (regressão GLM, z=2,08; p<0,04) e da presença de infantes (regressão GLM, z=4,27; p<0,001), enquanto tende a ser menor durante o comportamento de deslocamento (regressão GLM, z=-2,86; p<0,005). Das 6 horas e 26 minutos de atividades dos animais registradas, 46,37% foram despendidas em forrageio/alimentação, 34,20% em deslocamento, 10,62% em descanso e 8,81% em socialização. A latitude na área de estudo tem influência sobre a ocorrência de forrageio/alimentação (regressão GLM, z=2,74; p=0,006) e todos os registros deste comportamento (n=15) ocorreram na porção norte/nordeste da baía. Os grupos de S. guianensis utilizam a baía de forma heterogênea, e sua ocorrência é maior no norte da mesma. Variáveis como latitude, maré, oxigênio dissolvido, presença de infantes e comportamento exercem influência sobre o uso do hábitat pelo boto-cinza neste ambiente. O registro de infantes o ano todo, e a grande proporção de tempo empregado pelos grupos em forrageio/alimentação observada neste estudo indicam que a Baía de Benevente é utilizada por S.guianensis para reprodução e alimentação, demonstrando a relevância deste hábitat para a espécie. / Habitat use by organisms is directly influenced by resources availability. This availability is affected by physical parameters varying through space and time. Thus, home range, social organization and behavior of the species in the environment are usually determined by the mosaic distribution of resources. Given this, this study aimed to investigate the biotic and abiotic descriptors that can be explanatory of habitat use by Guiana dolphins (Sotalia guianensis) in Benevente Bay, Espirito Santo State, Brazil, also to identify possible areas of preferential occupation (key habitats). From January to December, 2012 we carried out 34 surveys using 4 or 14 meters boats, and measured environmental variables along parallel transects. From the systematic (n = 17) and opportunistic surveys (n = 17) we sighted 33 groups of dolphins. The survey effort was of 142 hours and 3 minutes, comprising 7 hours and 8 minutes (5.02%) of direct observation of the animals. For each sighting, it was recorded the group’s geographical position, size, composition and behavior. The average number of individuals and infants per group were 5.24 (± 3.25) and 1.03 (± 1.29), respectively. Spatial analysis revealed that encounters occurred in 30 (23.44%) out of the 128 cells of the grid created using ArcGIS 9.3.1. to represent the sampled area, evidencing that habitat occupation by dolphins is not uniform (χ2 = 22.97, p<0.001). The area used by groups (estimated through Minimum Convex Polygon) was 48.14 km2, which represents 39.40% of the studied area (122.18 km2) and demonstrated the significant concentration of dolphins in certain regions (χ2 = 22.43, p<0.001). Generalized linear models applied to the data showed that Guiana dolphin’s spatial distribution can be explained by latitude (GLM regression, z = 2.57, p<0.02), depth (GLM regression, z = 2.18, p<0.03) and flood tide (GLM regression, z = 2.39, p<0.02). Regarding to the group characterization, we observed that its size increases as a function both of dissolved oxygen in the water (GLM regression, z = 2.08, p<0.04) and infants presence (GLM regression, z = 4.27, p<0.001), unlike it tends to decrease during displacement activities by the dolphins (GLM regression, z = -2.86, p <0.005). From 6 hours and 26 minutes of behaviors counted, 46.37% were spent by animals on foraging/feeding, 34.20% in travelling, 10.62% in resting and 8.81% in socializing. The latitude in the study area has influence on the occurrence of foraging/feeding (GLM regression, z = 2.74, p = 0.006) and all records of this behavior (n = 15) occurred at bay’s northern/northeastern sectors. The spatial use was heterogeneous and the occurrence of groups concentrated in the north of the area. Some variables as latitude, tide, dissolved oxygen, infants presence and behavior are likely to influence the habitat use of the Guiana dolphin in this environment. The presence of infants throughout the year, coupled with the proportion of time spent by the groups in foraging/feeding observed in this study indicate that Benevente Bay has been used by Guiana dolphin for breeding and feeding, and demonstrate the importance of this habitat for the species.

No description available.

I den här essän har jag utgått från ett dilemma från verkligheten. Som jag uppfattar som svårt. Det handlar om barn i gråzonen med extra behov av stöd. De här barnen ser jag som en pedagogisk utmaning och de utmanar min kompetens dagligen. Jag kommer även se på de pedagogiska svårigheterna det är att på ett bra sätt inkludera dem i verksamheten. Hur bemöter vi barn som är introverta eller de som har ett utåtagerande beteende i förskolan? Jag har vänt blicken mot mig själv och analyserar mitt förhållningssätt och hur jag bemöter barn med utmanande beteende. Jag har reflekterat över mina känslor av att inte räcka till och tillkortakommanden när det kommer till barn som utmanar. Jag har i den här essän försökt belysa det komplexa i situationen där olika faktorer som, kompetens, tid, reflektion, gruppstorlek och synsätt på barnen kan påverka dem negativt i framtiden. Jag har även försökt att analysera hur jag kan arbeta i framtiden för att inkludera de här barnen på ett bra sätt. / In this essay, I have assumed a dilemma that I find difficult based on my own reality. Its about children in the grey zone with the need for additional support. I see these children as an educational challenge and they challenge my skills on a daily basis. I will also look at the educational difficulties of including them in the preschool in a good way. How do we respond to children who are introverted or those who have an outward hyperactive behavior in preschool? I have taken an introspective approach and analyzed how I treat children with challenging behavior. I have reflected on my feelings of not being sufficient and my shortcomings when it comes to children who challenge. In this essay I have tried to highlight the complexity of the situation where various factors such as, competence, time, reflection, group size and approach to children for which may affect them negatively in the future. But I have also tried to analyze how I can think and act in the future to include these children in the best way.

Plusieurs espèces s’alimentant en groupe ont un comportement correspondant au jeu producteur-chapardeur (P-C). Même si à l’origine ce jeu ne prenait pas en compte plusieurs éléments susceptibles d’être présents dans un groupe social, certaines études récentes suggèrent que des facteurs, notamment le niveau de défense des ressources et les liens sociaux, pourraient affecter ses prédictions. Notre étude avait pour but d’étudier les effets de ces facteurs en exposant des groupes de diamants mandarins à quatre traitements expérimentaux faisant varier la taille du groupe et le degré d’attachement des oiseaux. Notre étude est la première à montrer que le niveau de défense des ressources a un réel effet sur les fréquences d’utilisation des tactiques producteur et chapardeur. De fait, contrairement à ce qui est prédit dans le jeu P-C original, nous avons trouvé que la fréquence des chapardeurs n’augmente pas avec la taille du groupe dans un contexte favorisant la défense des ressources. Par ailleurs, nous n’avons pas trouvé d’effet significatif du lien social sur les fréquences d’utilisation des tactiques. Cependant, nos résultats suggèrent que les liens de couple changent le comportement individuel des sujets en ce qui a trait au chapardage et à l’agressivité : bien que le résultat soit non significatif, les individus chapardent davantage leur partenaire social que les autres membres du groupe, mais avec une agressivité plus faible. Les résultats obtenus sont prometteurs et ouvrent la voie à de nombreuses autres études sur l’effet des liens sociaux et la défense des ressources chez les espèces grégaires. / Many species foraging in groups show behaviours in agreement with the producer-scrounger (PS) game. Originally, the PS game did not consider many elements likely to be found within feeding groups. However, recent studies suggest that some factors, namely resource defendability and social attachment, could indeed influence the predictions of the PS game. Thus, to investigate the effects of resource defendability and social bonds, we exposed flocks of zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata), a monogamous species, to four different treatments intended to vary: (1) group size and, (2) degree of attachment among birds in a group. For the first time, we show that resource defendability has a true impact on the use of the two foraging tactics in the PS game. As a matter of fact, contrary to what is predicted in the original PS game, we found that the frequency of scrounger tactic did not increase with group size when tested in an economically defendable feeding context. On the other hand, even though pair bonding changed the individual scrounging and aggressive behaviours of the birds, we found no significant influence of this factor on the tactic use. Although the result was not significant, we found that scrounging was more frequent between social pairs than between experimental pairs, but individuals initiated aggressions towards their social partner with a lesser intensity. Thus, our results are promising and they call for many more studies on the effects of social bonds and resource defendability in gregarious species.

This thesis concerns the differences in how ethinic groups co-exist in two different environments in the same country, with a focus on the ethno-political. My research questions are: Why are ethnic or interpersonal relations characterized differently in different regions? How and why do conflicts or agreements arise in specific environments? The aim is to understand the connection between inter-ethnic relations and environmentally specific factors. I am concerned with those mechanisms and processes which determine the type of ethnic relation – as conflict or mutual understanding - in specific environments. The thesis uses case studies of two contrasting multiethnic cities with different interethnic relations – Erbil and Kirkuk in Kurdistan/Iraq. My explanatory model consists of four main factors: I) historical factors in terms of critical events; II) institutional factors such as institutional efficiency and security; III) structural factors such as group size, territorial base and different tolerance systems; and IV) social relational factors such as the significance of inter-ethnic contacts and social capital. The empirical work demonstrates that the relations between the above mentioned factors in the respective environments determine the outcome of the inter-ethnic relations. The results show that one factor can be more important than another factor, but how the factors impact upon one another and under what circumstances is of significance. The presentation of environmentally specific differences shows that ethnic groups do not have static boundaries and are not necessarily hostile to one another. Conflict is not the given form of relationship between ethnic groups. That is, the result can be read as a critique of those who necessarily see potential conflicts between groups with cultural differences and those who essentialize cultural groups. In this context one can see a chain of interrelated factors; the relevance of which is dependent on the specific situation. Some of the negative factors that can increase the possibility of conflict and decrease the possibility for peaceful co-existence include: Instability in the political climate; insecurity; institutional ineffectiveness; segregation; undefined relations of power; and an ethnic composition maintaining the balance of power. If these factors combined result in a high level of complexity, which makes ethnicity stand out in terms of ethnic competition, the likelihood of ethnic conflict is significant.

Many mammals are social. The most basic social behaviour is when the actions of one conspecific are directed toward another, what we call the dyadic interaction. Both intrinsic and extrinsic factors may affect an individuals propensity to interact with other members of a population. I used a social cervid, elk (Cervus elaphus), as a model species to test the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic factors of sociality on dyadic interactions. Dyadic interactions not only form the basis for social structure and information transfer within a population, but are also routes of pathogen transmission. My objective in this thesis was thus twofold: to improve our understanding of sociobiology, but also to gain insight into how sociality may underlie the transmission of communicable wildlife disease. I used a hierarchical, autecological approach from DNA, through individual, dyad, group, subpopulation, and ultimately population to explore the effects of intrinsic factors (e.g., sex and pairwise genetic relatedness) and extrinsic factors (e.g., season, conspecific density, habitat, and elk group size) on sociality. Elk in Riding Mountain National Park (RMNP), Manitoba, Canada, are exposed to the causal agent of bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis; TB); however, spatial variation in apparent disease prevalence suggests that TB can only persist in one subpopulation within the Park. Using the natural RMNP system and a captive elk herd that I manipulated, I explored factors that influence interaction rates and durations (as a proxy for pathogen transmission) among elk. Sexual segregation in elk results in seasonal and sex-based differences in interaction rate and duration; with interactions peaking in autumn-winter for both sexes. Female-female dyads interact more frequently than male-male dyads. However, male-male dyads interact for longer durations than do female-female dyads. Interaction rate and duration did not covary with pairwise relatedness. Conspecific density also had sex-specific results for interaction rate and duration. Whereas male-male dyadic interaction rates increase with density, female-female dyads increase until they reach a threshold and subsequently reduce their interaction rates at high density. I observed density dependence in interaction rates in experimental trials and from field data. Furthermore, social networks revealed that social familiarity (i.e., heterogeneity of interactions) can be both frequency- and- density dependent depending on the strength of the relationship (i.e., number of repeat interactions). Density also affected the likelihood that an interaction would occur; however, this was modified by vegetation association used by elk. My results reveal several ecological and evolutionary implications for information transfer and pathogen transmission. In particular, I show that seasonal inter-sex routes of transfer may exist and that transfer is likely to be density-dependent. Finally, I conclude that such transfer is modified by available resources.

Many mammals are social. The most basic social behaviour is when the actions of one conspecific are directed toward another, what we call the dyadic interaction. Both intrinsic and extrinsic factors may affect an individuals propensity to interact with other members of a population. I used a social cervid, elk (Cervus elaphus), as a model species to test the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic factors of sociality on dyadic interactions. Dyadic interactions not only form the basis for social structure and information transfer within a population, but are also routes of pathogen transmission. My objective in this thesis was thus twofold: to improve our understanding of sociobiology, but also to gain insight into how sociality may underlie the transmission of communicable wildlife disease. I used a hierarchical, autecological approach from DNA, through individual, dyad, group, subpopulation, and ultimately population to explore the effects of intrinsic factors (e.g., sex and pairwise genetic relatedness) and extrinsic factors (e.g., season, conspecific density, habitat, and elk group size) on sociality. Elk in Riding Mountain National Park (RMNP), Manitoba, Canada, are exposed to the causal agent of bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis; TB); however, spatial variation in apparent disease prevalence suggests that TB can only persist in one subpopulation within the Park. Using the natural RMNP system and a captive elk herd that I manipulated, I explored factors that influence interaction rates and durations (as a proxy for pathogen transmission) among elk. Sexual segregation in elk results in seasonal and sex-based differences in interaction rate and duration; with interactions peaking in autumn-winter for both sexes. Female-female dyads interact more frequently than male-male dyads. However, male-male dyads interact for longer durations than do female-female dyads. Interaction rate and duration did not covary with pairwise relatedness. Conspecific density also had sex-specific results for interaction rate and duration. Whereas male-male dyadic interaction rates increase with density, female-female dyads increase until they reach a threshold and subsequently reduce their interaction rates at high density. I observed density dependence in interaction rates in experimental trials and from field data. Furthermore, social networks revealed that social familiarity (i.e., heterogeneity of interactions) can be both frequency- and- density dependent depending on the strength of the relationship (i.e., number of repeat interactions). Density also affected the likelihood that an interaction would occur; however, this was modified by vegetation association used by elk. My results reveal several ecological and evolutionary implications for information transfer and pathogen transmission. In particular, I show that seasonal inter-sex routes of transfer may exist and that transfer is likely to be density-dependent. Finally, I conclude that such transfer is modified by available resources.

Plusieurs espèces s’alimentant en groupe ont un comportement correspondant au jeu producteur-chapardeur (P-C). Même si à l’origine ce jeu ne prenait pas en compte plusieurs éléments susceptibles d’être présents dans un groupe social, certaines études récentes suggèrent que des facteurs, notamment le niveau de défense des ressources et les liens sociaux, pourraient affecter ses prédictions. Notre étude avait pour but d’étudier les effets de ces facteurs en exposant des groupes de diamants mandarins à quatre traitements expérimentaux faisant varier la taille du groupe et le degré d’attachement des oiseaux. Notre étude est la première à montrer que le niveau de défense des ressources a un réel effet sur les fréquences d’utilisation des tactiques producteur et chapardeur. De fait, contrairement à ce qui est prédit dans le jeu P-C original, nous avons trouvé que la fréquence des chapardeurs n’augmente pas avec la taille du groupe dans un contexte favorisant la défense des ressources. Par ailleurs, nous n’avons pas trouvé d’effet significatif du lien social sur les fréquences d’utilisation des tactiques. Cependant, nos résultats suggèrent que les liens de couple changent le comportement individuel des sujets en ce qui a trait au chapardage et à l’agressivité : bien que le résultat soit non significatif, les individus chapardent davantage leur partenaire social que les autres membres du groupe, mais avec une agressivité plus faible. Les résultats obtenus sont prometteurs et ouvrent la voie à de nombreuses autres études sur l’effet des liens sociaux et la défense des ressources chez les espèces grégaires. / Many species foraging in groups show behaviours in agreement with the producer-scrounger (PS) game. Originally, the PS game did not consider many elements likely to be found within feeding groups. However, recent studies suggest that some factors, namely resource defendability and social attachment, could indeed influence the predictions of the PS game. Thus, to investigate the effects of resource defendability and social bonds, we exposed flocks of zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata), a monogamous species, to four different treatments intended to vary: (1) group size and, (2) degree of attachment among birds in a group. For the first time, we show that resource defendability has a true impact on the use of the two foraging tactics in the PS game. As a matter of fact, contrary to what is predicted in the original PS game, we found that the frequency of scrounger tactic did not increase with group size when tested in an economically defendable feeding context. On the other hand, even though pair bonding changed the individual scrounging and aggressive behaviours of the birds, we found no significant influence of this factor on the tactic use. Although the result was not significant, we found that scrounging was more frequent between social pairs than between experimental pairs, but individuals initiated aggressions towards their social partner with a lesser intensity. Thus, our results are promising and they call for many more studies on the effects of social bonds and resource defendability in gregarious species.