<p>Validerat; 20101217 (root)</p>

The Australian business environment has been changing at an ever-increasing pace since the mid-1980s. Technological, economic and social changes have altered the working environment. There have been constant technological advances with information technology influencing most categories of work. Organisations in public and private sectors have ongoing expectations of increased productivity, increased quality of processes and swifter responsiveness to clients. Team roles have changed. Team members are multi-skilled and work is designed to emphasise the whole task. The Karpin Industry Task Force described a vision for an Australian business environment that would, by 2014, be one with a flexible, skilled and motivated workforce, world class managers, a customer comes first mentality, and an internationally competitive perspective. These characteristics are congruent with those of learning organisations. The aim of this study is to evaluate the suitability of groupware as the supporting infrastructure for a learning organisation. To do this, the study assesses the use of technology to support personal and team learning in a learning organisation, studies the impact of groupware on learning within workgroups, determines the extent to which communication and learning styles influence its effectiveness, and identifies ways in which groupware can be used to capture the information used to support knowledge management in an organisation. Two case studies are used to undertake this assessment. Three distinct yet related frameworks underpin this study. The first is that of Groupware and the related research frameworks of Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) and Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL). The second is the Learning Organisation and its supporting disciplines. The final framework is that of learning and the action-oriented learning processes. Each is examined and the interrelatedness of the frameworks is explored. The journey to produce this written material has been one of twists and turns, blind alleys and blinding revelations, observation and reflection. My choice of techniques has been eclectic, reflecting the breadth of theoretical material covered.

Les applications coopératives mettent en jeu des interactions complexes entre les différents éléments qui les composent. L'environnement utilisé pour leur programmation doit donc offrir les mécanismes nécessaires à la réalisation de ces interactions. Le choix d'un environnement à objets pour cette mise en œuvre revêt de nombreux avantages, relatifs aux caractéristiques canoniques des modèles à objets (notion d'interface, héritage, encapsulation), mais certains mécanismes nécessaires aux applications coopératives ne sont pas ou peu pris en compte dans ce contexte. Parmi ceux-ci, nous nous intéressons plus particulièrement à un mode de communication asynchrone et anonyme, complément de l'appel de méthode synchrone. Nous proposons d'intégrer un tel mode de communication dans les modèles à objets en utilisant la notion d'événement: un événement peut être émis et déclencher de manière asynchrone des actions dans les objets. Nous décrivons les différents choix possibles pour intégrer cette communication à base d'événements dans un modèle à objets. Ces choix concernent à la fois les aspects déclaratifs du mécanisme et ceux relatifs au modèle d'exécution associé. Nous examinons également les effets de cette extension sur les caractéristiques canoniques des modèles à objets. Nous appliquons ensuite cette étude au modèle Guide, qui offre des objets répartis, partageables et persistants. Nous montrons comment le mode de communication proposé peut être intégré à ce modèle particulier, en insistant sur les critères qui motivent nos choix. Enfin, la réalisation d'un prototype et d'applications qui l'utilisent a permis de valider les propositions faites

On a daily basis humans interact with an increasing variety of personal electronic devices, ranging from laptops, tablets, smartphones, and e-readers to shared devices such as projected displays and interactive, digital tabletops. An emerging area of study focuses on understanding how these devices can be used together to support collaborative work. Where prior research has shown benefits of devices used individually, there is currently a lack of understanding of how devices should be used in conjunction to optimize a group's performance. In particular, the research presented in this dissertation combines qualitative and quantitative analyses of group work in three empirical studies to link the use of shared and personal devices to changes in group performance and process. In the first study, participants performed an optimization task with either a single, shared projected display or with the shared, projected display and personal laptops. Analyses of study data indicated that when personal displays were present, group performance was improved for the optimization task ($p = 0.025$). However, personal devices also reduced a group's ability to coordinate ($p = 0.016$). Additionally, when personal devices were present, individuals primarily used those devices instead of dividing time between their laptops and the shared display. To further investigate the support that shared displays provide groups, and in particular, how shared displays might support group work in multi-display settings, a follow-up study was conducted. The second study investigated how two different types of shared displays supported group work. In particular, shared workspaces, which allowed multiple users to simultaneously interact with shared content, and status displays, which provided awareness of the overall problem state to groups, were investigated. While no significant impact on group performance was observed between the two shared display types, qualitative analysis of groups working in these conditions provided insight into how the displays supported collaborative activities. Shared workspace displays provided a visual reference that aided individuals in grounding communication with their collaborators. On the other hand, status displays enabled the monitoring of a group's overall task progress. Regardless of which display was present, an individual's gaze and body position relative to the shared display supported the synchronization of group activities. Finally, where the previous two studies identified collaborative activities that were supported by the use of shared and personal displays, the experimental task performed by participants did not explore the transfer of task materials between shared and personal devices or alternative personal and shared devices. The third study addressed these limitations through the adoption of a new experimental task that enabled the exploration of how the manipulation of task artefacts supported collaborative activities, and alternative shared and personal devices in the form of interactive digital tabletops and tablet computers. In particular, the third study compared how personal and shared displays supported sensemaking groups working under three conditions: with shared, digital tables, with shared digital tables plus personal tablets, and with only personal tablets. Quantitative analyses revealed that the presence of the shared, digital tabletop significantly improved a group's ability to perform the sensemaking task ($p = 0.019$). Further, qualitative analyses revealed that the table supported key sensemaking activities: the prioritization of task materials, the ability to compare data, and the formation of group hypotheses. This dissertation makes four primary contributions to the field of Computer Supported Cooperative Work. First, it identifies cases where the presence of shared and personal displays provide performance benefits to groups, and through qualitative analyses links these performance benefits to group processes. Second, observed uses are grounded in an established process model, and used to identify collaborative activities that are supported by personal and shared devices. Third, equity of participation on shared displays is found to positively correlate ($p = 0.028$), and equity of participation on personal displays is found to negatively correlate ($p = 0.01$) with group performance for sensemaking tasks. Fourth, the method for studying group process and performance based on teamwork and taskwork provides a useful foundation for future studies of collaborative work.

Changes in work, along with improvements in techniques to statistically model uncertainty, have resulted in a class of groupware tools able to forecast the activities and/or attentional state of their users. This thesis represents an exploration into the design, development, and use of one such system. I describe the design and development of a groupware calendar system called Augur that is augmented with the ability to predict the attendance of its users. Using Bayesian networks, Augur models the uncertain problem of event attendance, drawing inferences based on the attributes of calendar events as well as a history of attendance provided by each user. This system was deployed to an academic workgroup and studied over the course of a semester. To more deeply explore the social implications of Augur and systems like it, I conducted a structured privacy analysis of Augur to examine the vulnerabilities inherent in this type of forecasting groupware system. I present an architecture, user interface, and probabilistic model for Augur. This work also addresses the feasibility of such a system and the challenges faced when deploying it to an academic workgroup. I also report on an exploration of the systems use by individuals, its effects on communication within working relationships, and its effectiveness with respect to the presence of domestic calendars. Finally, I present a set of implications for the workplace social environment with the introduction of Augur. Specifically, I show how the integrity of predictions generated by Augur can have consequences for the privacy of users and their representations through the shared calendar. Overall, this thesis is presented as an early exploration into the potential for a new class of forecasting groupware applications. It offers guidance and lessons learned for both designers and researchers seeking to work in this area. It also presents a complete calendar application as an example for building and studying such systems.

Η υποστήριξη μικρών ομάδων, (που απαρτίζονται από 2-6 μέλη), οι οποίες συνεργάζονται για την επίτευξη κοινών στόχων, αποτελεί αντικείμενο έρευνας τόσο ανθρωπιστικών όσο και τεχνολογικών επιστημονικών πεδίων. Σήμερα, η τεχνολογία διαδραματίζει σημαντικό ρόλο στη συνεργασία ομάδων με διάφορους τρόπους: ως μέσο που επιτρέπει τo διάλογο από απόσταση ή εκ του σύνεγγυς, το διαμοιρασμό πόρων, τη συντήρηση και καθοδήγηση των μελών της ομάδας, το συντονισμό τους κλπ. Επιπλέον, μπορεί να υποστηρίξει σε μεγάλο βαθμό τον ερευνητή στην ανάλυση των δεδομένων που προκύπτουν από δραστηριότητες αυτού του τύπου με κατάλληλες μεθόδους και εργαλεία. O όρος groupware ή collaborative software (Ellis, Gibbs, Rein, 1991), ο οποίος αποδίδεται στη διατριβή αυτή ως συνεργατικό λογισμικό, περιλαμβάνει υπολογιστικά συστήματα τα οποία προορίζονται για την υποστήριξη ομάδων ανθρώπων διαφορετικών μεγεθών, οι οποίες εμπλέκονται σε δραστηριότητες με κοινούς στόχους. Συστήματα αυτού του τύπου μπορεί να είναι είτε γενικού σκοπού, όπως ηλεκτρονικό ταχυδρομείο, chat, συστήματα τηλεδιάσκεψης, φόρουμ συζητήσεων, wiki κλπ., είτε ειδικά λογισμικά που έχουν κατασκευαστεί για να υποστηρίζουν τη συνεργασία και κάποιες συνεργατικές δραστηριότητες στο χώρο εργασίας ή μάθησης. Προβλήματα που σχετίζονται με τη σχεδίαση συνεργατικού λογισμικού αφορούν αφενός την καλύτερη υποστήριξη των συνεργατικών δραστηριοτήτων, την κατανόηση της τυπικής συμπεριφοράς των μελών των ομάδων και της υποστήριξης που η τρέχουσα τεχνολογία είναι σε θέση να τους προσφέρει. Για το σκοπό αυτό είναι σημαντικό να γίνουν κατανοητοί οι παράγοντες που επηρεάζουν τη συμπεριφορά των ομάδων με αυτά τα χαρακτηριστικά. Η Ψυχολογία (και ειδικότερα η Γνωστική Ψυχολογία) και η Κοινωνιολογία είναι δύο επιστημονικοί κλάδοι που ασχολούνται με την μελέτη της συμπεριφοράς ατόμων που συνεργάζονται σε μικρές ομάδες. Οι επιστήμες αυτές προτείνουν μοντέλα τα οποία περιγράφουν χαρακτηριστικά των συμπεριφορών αυτών. Από αυτές τις επιστημονικές περιοχές αναδεικνύονται στα επόμενα κεφάλαια ορισμένοι από τους παράγοντες που επηρεάζουν τη συμπεριφορά των ατόμων κατά τη συνεργασία ούτως ώστε να διατυπωθεί τελικά πρόταση για το ρόλο της τεχνολογίας στον έλεγχο των παραγόντων αυτών. Η παρούσα διατριβή ασχολείται με το θέμα αφενός της ανάλυσης της συμπεριφοράς και αφετέρου της υποστήριξης με κατάλληλο συνεργατικό λογισμικό μικρών ομάδων που εμπλέκονται σε συνεργατικές δραστηριότητες με στόχο τη μάθηση. Στα πλαίσια αυτά έχουν τεθεί επί μέρους στόχοι, οι οποίοι επιτρέπουν την εμβάθυνση στην περιοχή αυτή: Πρώτος στόχος αποτελεί η ανάλυση ορισμένων κοινωνικών και τεχνολογικών παραμέτρων που επηρεάζουν τη συνεργασία μικρών ομάδων, εν συνεχεία η σχεδίαση και ανάπτυξη ενός πρωτότυπου συνεργατικού λογισμικού το οποίο επιτρέπει τη ρύθμιση των παραμέτρων αυτών, ούτως ώστε να είναι δυνατή η σχεδίαση συνεργατικών δραστηριοτήτων με διαφορετικά χαρακτηριστικά και να είναι δυνατός ο έλεγχος ισχύος των σχετικών θεωρητικών υποθέσεων που αφορούν στην επίδραση τους στη συνεργασία. Για την εξακρίβωση των υποθέσεων αυτών, επιδιώκεται η υποστήριξη της ανάλυσης της συνεργατικής δραστηριότητας της ομάδας όπως καταγράφεται από το ίδιο το συνεργατικό λογισμικό με κατάλληλα εργαλεία και μεθόδους ανάλυσης. Με σχετικές εμπειρικές μελέτες γίνεται έλεγχος της αποτελεσματικότητας των συστημάτων που έχουν αναπτυχθεί είτε ως προς την δυνατότητα υποστήριξης της συνεργατικής συμπεριφοράς, είτε ως προς τη δυνατότητα ανάλυσης της συμπεριφοράς αυτής. Η μεθοδολογία που ακολουθήθηκε για την επίτευξη των στόχων αυτών είναι η εξής. 1. Σχεδιάστηκε και υλοποιήθηκε αρχικά μία πλατφόρμα η οποία επιτρέπει την ανάπτυξη συνεργατικών εφαρμογών με παραμετρικά χαρακτηριστικά. Ο όρος «παραμετρικός» αναφέρεται στο γεγονός ότι στις εφαρμογές αυτές ορισμένοι όροι της συνεργασίας μπορεί κάθε φορά να μεταβάλλονται ώστε να υποστηρίζουν προσδοκώμενη συμπεριφορά των μελών της ομάδας. 2. Κατόπιν δημιουργήθηκε ένα μοντέλο καταγραφής της συνεργατικής δραστηριότητας και μια μεθοδολογία ανάλυσης αυτής. Η μοντελοποίηση αυτή βοηθάει, εκτός των άλλων, στην δημιουργία μετρικών για την υποστήριξη του αναλυτή της συνεργασίας. Τελικά, αναπτύχθηκαν συγκεκριμένα εργαλεία που υποστηρίζουν την μοντελοποίηση αυτή και τα οποία δημιουργούν οπτικοποιήσεις της συνεργατικής δραστηριότητας. 3. Τέλος, με τη βοήθεια δύο διαφορετικών παραμετρικών εφαρμογών (του συνεργατικού λογισμικού ModellingSpace και Synergo) και της μεθοδολογίας ανάλυσης των δεδομένων που προέκυψαν από τη χρήση των εφαρμογών αυτών, διατυπώθηκαν υποθέσεις σε σχέση με συγκεκριμένες παραμέτρους και τον τρόπο που επηρεάζουν τη συνεργασία και διεξήχθησαν εμπειρικές μελέτες για την επιβεβαίωση των υποθέσεων αυτών. Τα συμπεράσματα που προέκυψαν από τις μελέτες αυτές απέδειξαν αφενός ότι η παραμετρική πλατφόρμα που σχεδιάστηκε είναι πράγματι ικανή να βοηθήσει στη δημιουργία ποικίλων συνεργατικών εφαρμογών με παραμετρικούς όρους συνεργασίας και αφετέρου ότι η μεθοδολογία ανάλυσης των συνεργατικών δεδομένων μπορεί πράγματι να βοηθήσει την ανάλυση δεδομένων από συνεργατικές δραστηριότητες και να υποστηρίξει την περαιτέρω κατανόηση των σύνθετων φαινομένων που παρατηρούνται κατά τη συνεργασία μικρών ομάδων με στόχο τη μάθηση. / -

On a daily basis humans interact with an increasing variety of personal electronic devices, ranging from laptops, tablets, smartphones, and e-readers to shared devices such as projected displays and interactive, digital tabletops. An emerging area of study focuses on understanding how these devices can be used together to support collaborative work. Where prior research has shown benefits of devices used individually, there is currently a lack of understanding of how devices should be used in conjunction to optimize a group's performance. In particular, the research presented in this dissertation combines qualitative and quantitative analyses of group work in three empirical studies to link the use of shared and personal devices to changes in group performance and process. In the first study, participants performed an optimization task with either a single, shared projected display or with the shared, projected display and personal laptops. Analyses of study data indicated that when personal displays were present, group performance was improved for the optimization task ($p = 0.025$). However, personal devices also reduced a group's ability to coordinate ($p = 0.016$). Additionally, when personal devices were present, individuals primarily used those devices instead of dividing time between their laptops and the shared display. To further investigate the support that shared displays provide groups, and in particular, how shared displays might support group work in multi-display settings, a follow-up study was conducted. The second study investigated how two different types of shared displays supported group work. In particular, shared workspaces, which allowed multiple users to simultaneously interact with shared content, and status displays, which provided awareness of the overall problem state to groups, were investigated. While no significant impact on group performance was observed between the two shared display types, qualitative analysis of groups working in these conditions provided insight into how the displays supported collaborative activities. Shared workspace displays provided a visual reference that aided individuals in grounding communication with their collaborators. On the other hand, status displays enabled the monitoring of a group's overall task progress. Regardless of which display was present, an individual's gaze and body position relative to the shared display supported the synchronization of group activities. Finally, where the previous two studies identified collaborative activities that were supported by the use of shared and personal displays, the experimental task performed by participants did not explore the transfer of task materials between shared and personal devices or alternative personal and shared devices. The third study addressed these limitations through the adoption of a new experimental task that enabled the exploration of how the manipulation of task artefacts supported collaborative activities, and alternative shared and personal devices in the form of interactive digital tabletops and tablet computers. In particular, the third study compared how personal and shared displays supported sensemaking groups working under three conditions: with shared, digital tables, with shared digital tables plus personal tablets, and with only personal tablets. Quantitative analyses revealed that the presence of the shared, digital tabletop significantly improved a group's ability to perform the sensemaking task ($p = 0.019$). Further, qualitative analyses revealed that the table supported key sensemaking activities: the prioritization of task materials, the ability to compare data, and the formation of group hypotheses. This dissertation makes four primary contributions to the field of Computer Supported Cooperative Work. First, it identifies cases where the presence of shared and personal displays provide performance benefits to groups, and through qualitative analyses links these performance benefits to group processes. Second, observed uses are grounded in an established process model, and used to identify collaborative activities that are supported by personal and shared devices. Third, equity of participation on shared displays is found to positively correlate ($p = 0.028$), and equity of participation on personal displays is found to negatively correlate ($p = 0.01$) with group performance for sensemaking tasks. Fourth, the method for studying group process and performance based on teamwork and taskwork provides a useful foundation for future studies of collaborative work.

This thesis presents two empirical studies of four pairs of design students collaborating on two small products design sessions in both face-to-face and distributed settings while using computer-mediated communication (CMC) technologies and a Collaborative Virtual Environment (CVE). To gain insight about the way designers communicate and collaborate, the observation focused on how much time the students worked "together" and "individually" in the design process. Each design process was video recorded and analyzed with a video analysis software Observer XT. The first study shows that both teams worked together to arrive at a design concept then they divided the work for each person to work independently (either the 3D modeling task or the 2D graphic task) to produce the final design. Teams worked together less than fifty percent of the overall work time because they could not share design information effectively using the computing technology tools on the collaborative design process. Findings of the first study suggested plausible design criteria for communication tools for distributed collaboration that supports interaction and sharing design information. The second study used the same methodology and experimental procedures as those used in study. However, participants were provided a shared tool such as NetMeeting Whiteboard and Shared program that support shared sketching abilities or shared viewing of 3D objects. The study shows that teams spent more time working together when using programs that support shared sketching abilities or shared viewing of 3D objects. The shared program and the whiteboard function from NetMeeting helped the design teams to share more information. Participants commented that this program helped facilitate the collaborative process by enabling them each to perform multiple tasks such as talking with their teammates and observing 3D object in a shared view at the same time. Participants also reported that they found the distributed setting a more engaging environment to work with teammates because they were "forced to be engaged" and "forced to communicate better," and that they "concentrated more using hand gestures on camera." Although two studies showed that current CVE (Unreal) did not lead to effective collaboration, several potential features such as creating virtual mock-ups for the brainstorming within a virtual environment were introduced. Participants consider real time 3D visualization effective in the design process and thus very promising in the collaborative setting if they can share ideas easily within a 3D virtual environment.

Η εργασία αυτή έχει ως αντικείμενο την ανάπτυξη ενός συνεργατικού προγράμματος (groupware) για τη δημιουργία διαγραμμάτων μέσω διαδικτύου. Το πρόγραμμα αυτό, ονομαζόμενο CreDia (Diagram Creator), αναπτύχθηκε έτσι ώστε να εκτελείται από φυλλομετρητές ιστού χωρίς προηγούμενη εγκατάσταση. Στο κείμενο της εργασίας γίνεται αναφορά στη διαδικασία ανάπτυξης του προγράμματος αυτού, στο πείραμα ευχρηστίας και στη χρήση των αποτελεσμάτων του για την αποσφαλμάτωση και την ανάπτυξη της τελικής έκδοσης του προγράμματος. / The object of this paper is the creation of a groupware program for creating diagrams collaboratively over the internet. This program, called CreDia (Diagram Creator). The aforementioned paper decribes the development of the first version of this program, the user testing and debugging and the development of the program's final version.

This thesis aimed to study the interaction between an educational technology system and its users and give suggestions for design improvements. The technology system is called EDIT (Educational Development through Information Technology) and has been developed and applied at Linköping University’s Faculty of Health Science. EDIT supports Problem Based Learning and enables scenarios to be presented through the World Wide Web. The study was divided into two parts. The first part consisted of a qualitative study with the objective to describe the interaction between the students and EDIT. Students from the faculty’s medical-, nursing- and social care programs were interviewed and observed using the system. The study showed that EDIT was not fully designed to support multiple user interaction. EDIT could only be operated by one user at a time which in turn resulted in an interaction reliant on the operators technical knowledge and ability to handle the system. The second part consisted of a redesign of EDIT. The design goal was to create a groupware that could be operated by multiple users. The design solutions were presented as lofi prototypes to three EDIT users. The users approved of the ideas but stressed the danger of using too advanced and unfamiliar technology.