Die Dissertationsschrift untersucht die Interaktion zwischen Strom- und Wärmemarkt mit einem besonderen Fokus auf Wärmepumpen und Wärmenetzen. Vor dem Hintergrund des steigenden Ausbaus erneuerbarer Energien und der langfristigen Klimaziele stellt sich dabei die Frage der Wirkung, welche die Kopplung von Strom- und Wärmemarkt auf die Reduktion der CO2-Emissionen, die Energiesystemkosten und die Integration der erneuerbaren Energien hat. Zur Beantwortung der Forschungsfrage wird das lineare Optimierungsmodell Enertile um zwei Wärmemodule zur Berücksichtigung von Wärmepumpen und Wärmenetzen erweitert. Im Unterschied zu anderen Modellen wird in der Implementierung für diese Arbeit der Ausbau und der Einsatz der erneuerbaren Energien, der KWK und der weiteren fossilen Kraftwerkskapazitäten gleichzeitig optimiert, wodurch eine Analyse der Wechselwirkungen zwischen dem Ausbau erneuerbarer Energien und der Kopplung von Strom- und Wärmemarkt möglich ist. Die in dieser Arbeit vorgenommene modellgestützte Analyse zeigt die große Bedeutung der Interaktion zwischen Strom- und Wärmemarkt. Im Rahmen einer langfristigen Dekarbonisierung der Energieversorgung durch einen verstärkten Ausbau von erneuerbaren Energien ergeben sich sowohl Chancen als auch Herausforderungen für die Interaktion zwischen Strom- und Wärmemarkt. Die Modellierung der Wärmepumpen zeigt für den gesamten Zeitraum ab 2020 deutlich geringere spezifische CO2-Emissionen gegenüber der Wärmeerzeugung in modernen Gasbrennwertkesseln. Die Ergebnisse zeigen auch, dass bivalente Systeme – die kombinierte Nutzung verschiedener Wärmeerzeugungstechnologien wie beispielsweise KWK, Gasheizkessel und Elektroheizkessel – vor dem Hintergrund der Umstrukturierung des Stromsektors eine wichtige Rolle spielen. Langfristig stellt die flexible Wärmebereistellung durch elektrische Heizungstechnologien insbesondere bei hohen Anteilen erneuerbarer Energien eine kostengünstige und CO2-arme Alternative zur fossilen Wärmeerzeugung dar.:1 Einleitung 1 1.1 Ausgangslage 1 1.2 Problemstellung 3 1.3 Zielsetzung und Vorgehen 4 2 Rahmenbedingungen auf dem Strom- und Wärmemarkt in Deutschland 7 2.1 Rahmenbedingungen auf dem Strommarkt 7 2.2 Rahmenbedingungen auf dem Wärmemarkt 12 2.3 Schlussfolgerungen für diese Arbeit 16 3 Modellierung der Interaktionen von Strom- und Wärmemarkt 17 3.1 Stand der Forschung und Anforderungen an das Modell 17 3.2 Modelle zur Untersuchung von Strom- und Wärmemarkt 18 3.3 Stromsystemoptimierung Enertile 21 3.3.1 Eingangsdaten und Ergebnisse 23 3.3.2 Problemformulierung 24 3.4 Modellerweiterung zur Integration des Wärmemarktes 26 3.4.1 Wärmepumpen 26 3.4.2 Wärmenetze 32 4 Unsicherheiten in Energiesystemmodellen 42 4.1 Unsicherheiten im Rahmen dieser Arbeit 42 4.2 Methoden zum Umgang mit Unsicherheiten in Energiesystemmodellen 43 4.3 Szenarienentwicklung und Sensitivitäten 47 5 Definition von Szenarien zur Analyse der Wechselwirkungen zwischen Strom- und Wärmemarkt 50 5.1 Szenarienübersicht 50 5.2 Zentrale Annahmen 51 5.3 Strommarkt 56 5.3.1 Erneuerbare Energien 56 5.3.2 Konventionelle Kraftwerke 57 5.3.3 Stromnachfrage 59 5.4 Wärmenetze 59 5.5 Wärmepumpen 63 5.6 Sensitivitäten 65 5.7 Kritische Reflexion der Annahmen 66 6 Modellgestützte Analyse der Wechselwirkungen zwischen Strom- und Wärmemarkt 68 6.1 Einfluss auf die CO2-Emissionen 69 6.1.1 Strommarkt 69 6.1.2 Wärmepumpen 72 6.1.3 Wärmenetze 77 6.2 Entwicklung des Kraftwerksparks und des Erzeugungsmixes 82 6.2.1 Strommarkt 82 6.2.2 Wärmepumpen 95 6.2.3 Wärmenetze 106 6.2.4 Integration erneuerbarer Energien auf dem Strommarkt 128 6.3 Änderung der Systemkosten durch die Kopplung von Strom- und Wärmemarkt 131 6.3.1 Kosten der Stromerzeugung 132 6.3.2 Kosten der Wärmeerzeugung in Wärmepumpen 134 6.3.3 Kosten der Wärmeerzeugung in Wärmenetze 136 6.4 Zusammenfassung der Szenarienanalyse 140 6.4.1 Einfluss der Kopplung von Strom- und Wärmemarkt bei ambitionierten Klimaschutz 140 6.4.2 Einfluss der Kopplung von Strom- und Wärmemarkt bei mäßigem Klimaschutz 141 7 Sensitivitäten 142 7.1 Stabile Brennstoffpreise 142 7.2 Potentiale von erneuerbaren Energien 145 7.3 Isolierte Effekte von Elektroheizkesseln und KWK 148 7.3.1 Keine KWK 148 7.3.2 Keine Elektroheizkessel 150 7.4 Hohe Flexibilität der Wärmepumpen 151 7.5 Zusammenfassung Sensitivitäten 152 8 Zusammenfassung 154 8.1 Motivation und Forschungsfrage 154 8.2 Methodisches Vorgehen 154 8.3 Ergebnisse 155 8.4 Schlussfolgerungen und kritische Reflektion 156 8.4.1 Szenarienanalyse 156 8.4.2 Methodik 157 8.4.3 Ausblick 159

Climate change is a global phenomenon that strongly affect cities and urban areas. Due to the intensive industrial activities and global population growth leading to more fossil energy demands for the last century, the global warming effect appeared to have been significantly exacerbated. To overcome the issues related to the increase of greenhouse emissions amplifying the global warming, multiple initiatives and engagements have appeared for the last 10 years in order to reduce our global energy demands and reduce the dependency to fossil energy and engage a transition to renewable energy. One way to achieve these objectives is to engage a technological and societal shift in the building industry by reducing energy demands and increasing local energy productions based on renewable energy or, at least, carbon neutral systems. In order to qualify these new types of construction, the concept of positive energy district (PED) has arisen through multiple initiative around the world. This thesis aims to assess the possibility to meet the PED requirements for the new Jakobsgardarna district extension project proposed by Sweco in Borlange, Sweden. This project is based on 144 buildings composed of schools, residentials, retails shop, and offices spread on an 80 ha of land. The Building Energy Modelling (BEM) has been performed on IDA ICE to assess the energy demands and energy production of the entire district following multiple scenarios. These simulations have been performed with either a district heating system or a heat pump as base system. Then, the models have been extended with photovoltaic (PV) panel in multiple configurations in order to find the bes tsolution to meet the PED requirements. First results of the baseline configuration (district heating) shows that the yearly energy demand was around 14,227 MWh which represent almost 69 kWh/m2, mainly dominated up to 75% by the heating demands including domestic hot water (DHW). Moreover, an uncomfortable situation has been met in almost all residential building during summer with temperature reaching up to 31°C. The second configuration considering a heat pump with bore holes in replacement of the district heating shows an overall yearly energy demands of 9,738 MWh representing 47.2kWh/m2 per heated area. This results in a 67% reduction of the energy demands in comparison with the base case. This is due to the high coefficient of performance (COP=4) of the heat pump compared to the district heating system’s (COP=1). In this configuration the heating demands still corresponds to 70% of the overall energy demands. The addition of PV panels compensated the entire electrical needs of the district when combined with district heating and even allowed to reach the positive energy requirements when combined with heat pumps with bore holes. The latter case generates up to 20% of electrical energy in excess of what it produced, even while considering solar panels at a15° of tilt angle in a region where the optimal inclination is defined at 45°. According to the preliminary results obtained in this study, positive energy requirements could be met by the combination of heat pump and PV panels according to our assumptions. This work could then be used to further refine the district design and propose suggestions to improve both the thermal modeling of the district and the design rules for architects and local stakeholders.

The goal of this thesis is to design a heating system for a building of an elementary school in Polešovice. The thesis is divided into three parts. The first, theoretical, part discusses heat pumps with the main focus on gas absorption heat pumps. The se-cond part addresses the design of the school heating as well as the design of an ecological heat source. The part consisting calculations introduces the calculation of heat losses, the optimal choice of temperature gradient, the design of heating surfaces, the design of heat sources including the design of the bivalent source, the way of hot water preparation, dimensioning, the security equipment and other calculations. The last part deals with the drawing documentation, the technical report and also some economical questions such as return on investment based on measured efficiency of the heat source.

Fjärrvärme är det dominerande uppvärmningssättet för flerbostadshus i Sverige och dess konkurrent är värmepumparna som blivit allt mer effektiva och fått en bättre slagkraft på marknaden. Samtidigt har regeringen satt upp 2020 målen, för att sänka och förbättra Sveriges energianvändning. Eftersom att bostadssektorn står för nästan 40 procent av Sveriges totala energianvändning, är rapportens syfte att studera hur energiförbrukningen för äldre hus kan sänkas genom byte av energisystem eller genom att behålla ett befintligt fjärrvärmesystem men utföra energieffektiviseringsåtgärder. De energisystemen som studeras i denna rapport är fjärrvärme, bergvärme och luft-vatten värmepump. Den data som har använts i rapporten har i huvudsak samlats in från ett flerbostads-hyreshus beläget i Vingåker och som ägs av Sjötorps hus AB. För att resultatet ska vara mer generellt har även två typhus studerats; ett småhus och ett större flerbostadshus. Resultatet av studien visar att den största kostnaden för fjärrvärmen ligger i driften och därmed blir detta alternativ också dyrast för de två större husen. Dock är både investeringskostnaden och underhållskostnaderna betydligt större för värmepumpar och varierar beroende på vart i landet de ska installeras, oförutsedda driftstopp och haverier. Resultatet visar också att det inte är lönsamt för ett småhus att byta från ett befintligt fjärrvärmesystem till värmepump. Slutsatsen är att energieffektivisering bör ske i första hand för att sänka en fastighets energiförbrukning, speciellt eftersom att andelen äldre hus kommer att öka och oavsett hur lite energi de nya husen förbrukar kommer de äldre husen utgöra den största andelen av Sveriges totala bostadsbestånd. Att en värmepump använder mindre energi är ingen långsiktig lösning för att sänka energiförbrukningen. Istället bör energieffektiviseringsåtgärder ligga till grund vid en önskan om sänkt energiförbrukning. / District heating is the dominant heating method for apartment buildings in Sweden, and its competitor is the heat pumps that have become increasingly efficient and have a better impact on the market. At the same time, the government has set the 2020 targets in order to reduce and improve Sweden's energy use. As the housing sector accounts for almost 40 percent of Sweden's total energy use, the report's purpose is to study how energy consumption for older homes can be reduced by changing energy systems or by maintaining an existing district heating system, but performing energy efficiency measures. The energy systems studied in this report are district heating, geothermal heat and air-water heat pump. The data used in the report has been largely collected from a apartment building located in Vingåker, owned by Sjötorps hus AB. In order for the results to be more general, two example houses have also been studied; A small house and a larger apartment building. The result of the study shows that the biggest cost of district heating is in operation, and thus this option is also the most expensive for the two major houses. However, both investment costs and maintenance costs are significantly higher for heat pumps and vary depending on where in the country they are to be installed, unexpected downtime and breakdowns. The result also shows that it is not profitable for a small house to switch from an existing district heating system to a heat pump. The conclusion is that energy efficiency should be the first option to reduce the energy consumption of a property, especially as the stock of older houses will increase. No matter how little the energy consumption for the newly built houses are, the older houses will be the largest part of Sweden's total housing stock. The fact that the heat pump uses less energy is no long-term solution to energy efficiency. Instead, energy efficiency actions should be the first option when the desire is reduced energy consumption.

Heat actuated adsorption heat pumps offer the opportunity to improve overall energy efficiency in waste heat applications by eliminating shaft work requirements accompanying vapor compression cycles. The coefficient of performance (COP) in adsorption heat pumps is generally low. The objective of this thesis is to model the adsorption system to gain critical insight into how its performance can be improved. Because adsorption heat pumps are intermittent devices, which induce cooling by adsorbing refrigerant in a sorption bed heat/mass exchanger, transient models must be used to predict performance. In this thesis, such models are developed at the adsorbent particle level, heat/mass exchanger component level and system level. Adsorption heat pump modeling is a coupled heat and mass transfer problem. Intra-particle mass transfer resistance and sorption bed heat transfer resistance are shown to be significant, but for very fine particle sizes, inter-particle resistance may also be important. The diameter of the adsorbent particle in a packed bed is optimized to balance inter- and intra-particle resistances and improve sorption rate. In the literature, the linear driving force (LDF) approximation for intra-particle mass transfer is commonly used in place of the Fickian diffusion equation to reduce computation time; however, it is shown that the error in uptake prediction associated with the LDF depends on the working pair, half-cycle time, adsorbent particle radius, and operating temperatures at hand. Different methods for enhancing sorption bed heat/mass transfer have been proposed in the literature including the use of binders, adsorbent compacting, and complex extended surface geometries. To maintain high reliability, the simple, robust annular-finned-tube geometry with packed adsorbent is specified in this work. The effects of tube diameter, fin pitch and fin height on thermal conductance, metal/adsorbent mass ratio and COP are studied. As one might expect, many closely spaced fins, or high fin density, yields high thermal conductance; however, it is found that the increased inert metal mass associated with the high fin density diminishes COP. It is also found that thin adsorbent layers with low effective conduction resistance lead to high thermal conductance. As adsorbent layer thickness decreases, the relative importance of tube-side convective resistance rises, so mini-channel sized tubes are used. After selecting the proper tube geometry, an overall thermal conductance is calculated for use in a lumped-parameter sorption bed simulation. To evaluate the accuracy of the lumped-parameter approach, a distributed parameter sorption bed simulation is developed for comparison. Using the finite difference method, the distributed parameter model is used to track temperature and refrigerant distributions in the finned tube and adsorbent layer. The distributed-parameter tube model is shown to be in agreement with the lumped-parameter model, thus independently verifying the overall UA calculation and the lumped-parameter sorption bed model. After evaluating the accuracy of the lumped-parameter model, it is used to develop a system-level heat pump simulation. This simulation is used to investigate a non-recuperative two-bed heat pump containing activated carbon fiber-ethanol and silica gel-water working pairs. The two-bed configuration is investigated because it yields a desirable compromise between the number of components (heat exchangers, pumps, valves, etc.) and steady cooling rate. For non-recuperative two-bed adsorption heat pumps, the average COP prediction in the literature is 0.39 for experiments and 0.44 for models. It is important to improve the COP in mobile waste heat applications because without high COP, the available waste heat during startup or idle may be insufficient to deliver the desired cooling duty. In this thesis, a COP of 0.53 is predicted for the non-recuperative, silica gel-water chiller. If thermal energy recovery is incorporated into the cycle, a COP as high as 0.64 is predicted for a 90, 35 and 7.0°C source, ambient and average evaporator temperature, respectively. The improvement in COP over heat pumps appearing in the literature is attributed to the adsorbent particle size optimization and careful selection of sorption bed heat exchanger geometry.

Orientador: Luis Augusto Barbosa Cortez / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecanica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-09T21:47:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 BaldassinJunior_Ricardo_M.pdf: 12303899 bytes, checksum: eebb86f1faa615631b1652ad9774ddde (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007 / Resumo: O leite é um dos mais importantes produtos da agropecuária nacional, com cerca de 2/3 das propriedades rurais do país destinando-se à pecuária leiteira e com um dos maiores rebanhos do mundo. Apesar da grandiosidade, o setor ainda sofre com a baixa produtividade, os altos custos e a defasagem tecnológica. Como conseqüência, muitos produtores abandonaram suas atividades diante deste novo cenário competitivo. Atualmente, assuntos como uso racional de energia e aplicação intensiva de tecnologia tem sido intensamente discutidos e abordados, e indicados como aspectos importantes para a obtenção de ganhos de produtividade. Desta forma, visou-se neste trabalho avaliar o uso de energia no processamento de leite de três propriedades (leite pasteurizado tipo ¿A¿ e leite cru refrigerado), bem como, a representatividade dos diversos processos no consumo total, assunto este, ainda pouco conhecido e abordado no país. Objetivando ainda, promover a racionalização energética, avaliaram-se os potenciais de aproveitamento de calor de condensação de sistemas de refrigeração existentes para o aquecimento de água de limpeza e higienização, bem como, avaliou-se a viabilidade técnica e econômica da adequação dos sistemas (operação segundo um bomba de calor com geração simultânea de duas fontes térmicas) em substituição ao uso de resistências elétricas. Dentre as proposta, avaliou-se a adequação realizada em um planta piloto em operação. Com o uso de bomba de calor, a redução no consumo total de energia elétrica foi de até 15% com tempos de retorno dos investimentos variando entre 1,3 e 3,7 anos / Abstract: Milk is one of the most important products of Brazilian agriculture, with about 2/3 of the rural properties dedicated to the milkmaid cattle breeding and with one of the largest flocks of the world. In spite of its size, the sector still suffers of low productivity, high costs and tecnological delay. As a consequence, many producers have abandoned its activities before this new competitive technology were introduced. Now, subjects as, the use rational of energy and intensive application of technology has been discussed intensely resulting in productivity gains. In this work , it was seek to evaluate the use of energy for milk processing in three different properties (pasteurized milk type " A " and refrigerated raw milk). It was also evaluated how representativive the several processes in the total consumption were, a problem, still not very well-known and trated in Brazil. To promote the energy rationalization, the potential use of condensation heat of refrigeration systems was evaluated for the cleaning water heating, as well as, the technical and economic viability of the adaptation of the systems was evaluated (operation according to a heat pump with simultaneous generation of cold and heat) in substitution to the use of electric resistances. In the midst of proposals, an adaptation was evaluated in a pilot plant in operation. With the use of heat pumps, there was a decreasing of 15% in the consumption of eletric energy with payback between 1,3 and 3,7 years / Mestrado / Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica

La thèse répond à deux problématiques, d'une part la quantification des effacements de consommation d'électricité par technologies gaz dans l'habitat et d'autre part de l'intégration de leurs valorisations dans une perspective de planification des infrastructures. Ces travaux se justifient dans un contexte d'augmentation de la pointe électrique, à l'origine d'une hausse du risque de défaillance du système, et de la baisse des consommations de gaz naturel conduisant à une sous utilisation du réseau de distribution. Pourtant, alors que la demande en gaz naturel croît du fait de l'installation de centrales à cycle combiné sur le réseau de transport, l'interaction des réseaux de distribution gaz/électricité n'est pas exploitée.Ce manuscrit envisage l'intégration des technologies gaz comme moyen de Maîtrise de la Demande en Électricité dans le processus de planification des réseaux. Ainsi les effacements de consommations d'électricité lors des périodes dimensionnantes par des micro-cogénérateurs ou des chaudières hybrides sont des solutions alternatives aux solutions de renforcement de réseaux.Pour quantifier le gisement d'effacement, nous nous intéressons à l'impact marginal des systèmes sur la demande en termes de modification de la quantité d'Énergie Non Distribuée potentielle. Les estimations des impacts de systèmes de chauffage sur la demande sont donc des prérequis à cette approche. Nous modélisons les courbes de charge régionales par une approche Bottom-Up permettant de déterminer les profils de demande marginale de chauffage en fonction des systèmes. La mise en application de cette méthode est à fiabiliser par des études socio-technico-économiques permettant de réduire les incertitudes sur les déterminants des besoins de chauffage. Une calibration en puissance des profils générés a été proposée mais n'a pu être réalisée. En revanche, nous apportons une contribution à l'analyse des courbes de charge agrégées en montrant que le modèle d'estimation actuellement utilisé par le gestionnaire de réseau s'apparente à un modèle simplifié de bâtiment / This PhD thesis addresses two issues: Firstly, the assessment of Demand Side Management (DSM) opportunity of gas and electricity technologies in dwellings, and secondly, the integration of their valuations in infrastructure planning schemes.This work originaites from a context of the growth of electricity peaks (which increased risk of system failure) and the natural gas consumption decrease which leads to an under-utilization of the gas distribution network.This manuscript focuses on the integration of gas technologies as DSM solution to contribute to the planning of electricity grid. Indeed, relieving the electricity consumption during constrained periods by diffusing micro-cogeneration or hybrid boiler, is an actual alternative to network reinforcement solutions. To quantify the load shedding capacity, we are interested in the marginal impact of demand systems on the amount of Energy Not Supplied potential. Estimating systems' impacts on heating demand is a prerequisite to this approach. So we model the regional heating load curves by a Bottom-Up approach to simulate marginal demand profiles depending on heating systems. The implementation of this method requires socio-technico-economic studies to reduce uncertainty of the determinants of heating needs. A load calibration methodology has been proposed but has not been performed. However, we make a contribution to the analysis of aggregated load curves emphasizing that the load model currently used by network operator similar to a simplified building model.

L'augmentation des prix de l'énergie due à la raréfaction des énergies fossiles et la prise en compte des impacts environnementaux rend inéluctable l'engagement des industriels dans une démarche de maitrise de leurs consommations énergétiques et leurs émissions. L'Industrie Diffuse (ID), par opposition aux IGCE, est de plus en plus importante sur le plan économique, énergétique et environnemental. Elle devient ainsi une cible prioritaire d'autant plus que l'on constate qu'elle a été peu traitée dans les analyses énergétiques malgré l'intérêt des politiques en matière d'efficacité énergétique et le nombre considérable d'articles et de livres sur l'énergie. Comment quantifier alors l'implication de l'ID dans la contrainte réglementaire liée au changement climatique ? Quelles technologies et politiques à mettre en œuvre pour contribuer aux objectifs fixés par les plans d'actions pour l'efficacité énergétique ?Le travail de cette thèse repose ainsi sur une optimisation technico-économique de la chaine énergétique, à partir du modèle « bottom-up » de TIMES, dans une approche prospective pertinente des conséquences énergétique et environnementale de politiques MDE dans l'ID. Ce modèle s'appuie notamment sur une représentation par usages à l'inverse des IGCE du fait de l'inadaptabilité de l'approche produit/procédé. Dans ce cadre, l'analyse de la valorisation de la chaleur perdue en sortie des procédés à travers le déploiement de PAC dans l'agroalimentaire a été réalisée.Le recours à la modélisation prospective permet notamment d'observer le profil technologique et le timing des investissements des PAC en réponse à des contraintes énergétiques ou de mesures incitatives dans le cadre de Certificat d'Économie d'Énergie ou de valorisation des émissions de CO2. Il peut mettre aussi en lumière, d'une part, une possibilité d'étude sur un ajustement incrémentiel d'une taxe sur les émissions par les autorités de régulation pour atteindre leurs objectifs environnemental et énergétique sur le court, moyen et long-terme. D'autre part, il constitue un bon outil d'aide à la décision en déterminant des coûts différenciés d'économies d'énergie dans le cadre d'investissements de technologies MDE pour un meilleur criblage sectoriel. / The growing energy prices due to the rarefaction of the fossil fuels and the consideration of the environmental impacts makes inevitable the involvement of industrials to promote energy efficiency policy and emissions reductions. We notice that the Non-energy intensive industry (NEI), by opposition to the energy intensive industry (EI), is expected to play an important role because of their economic and energy importance and its relatively high growth rate. It becomes then a priority target especially since it has been neglected in energy analysis despite the continuing policy interest in energy efficiency and the many reports and book written on the topic. How can NEI contribute effectively to the reduction of the energy consumptions and the CO2 emissions? Which technologies and/or policies should be implemented to reach these objectives?This PhD work is then based on a technical economic optimization of the sectoral energy system, by using a “bottom-up” model with TIMES framework, in a relevant prospective approach of the energy and environmental consequences of MDE policies in NEI. This model relies on a representation by energy end-uses contrary to the EI because of the unsuitability of the approach product/process. As part of this, we analyzed the industrial heat recovery on processes through the deployment of HP in Food & Drink industry, the most important NEI's sector.Then, this prospective modelling allows observing the shape of investments of HP in response to energy constraints or incentive policies within the mechanism of Energy Savings Certificate or valuation of CO2 emissions. It can give, on one hand, a possibility of study which giving the different adjustment of a tax on gas emissions by the authorities of regulation to reach their environmental and energy objectives in NEI over a medium or long-term horizon. On the other hand, it is very useful as a good decision-making tool by determining differentiated costs for energy savings within the investments of efficient technologies at the highest level of disaggregation for a better sectoral screening

Currently, more than half of all Swedish single-family houses have an installed heat pump and more heat is supplied by heat pumps in Sweden than in any other nation. Despite the enormous impact of heat pumps on the Swedish energy system, the transition towards their use has gone relatively unnoticed. Hence the title of this thesis, ‘A silent revolution’. This thesis provides an in-depth study of the Swedish transition towards heat pumps and how Swedish industries contributed to it. It approaches the topic from the perspective of value networks and ‘coopetition’, combined with the concept of complementarities. This approach has been inspired by the work of Verna Allee (2009) and Erik Dahmén (1991). In this thesis, value networks are networks of actors surrounding a specific business model, coopetition is used to describe the relationships between actors (as both competitive and cooperative), and the concept of complementarities is used to analyze the dynamics between synergistic elements and value networks in Sweden’s heat pump sector and energy system. Based on this approach, the thesis explains how a durable web of relations and interdependencies between complementarities has developed within the heat pump sector and the energy system in Sweden, and between the two, during the country’s transition to widespread use of heat pumps. Interest in heat pumps arose in Sweden and other parts of Europe during the 1970s. The Swedish energy system had been caught between international oil crises and national political mobilisation against nuclear power expansion. In this period of negative transformation pressure, the heat pump appeared as a promising alternative that could mitigate the use of oil and electricity for heating. In the 1970s, an early Swedish heat pump industry formed together with a growing heat pump market. A large number of diverse actors became involved in the Swedish heat pump sector, and the intense coopetition dynamics relating to heat pumps following the 1970s oil crisis contributed to durable connections between complementarities during the early stages of the transition. The 1980s saw a rapid expansion of large heat pumps in Swedish district heating facilities. In the mid-1980s, however, oil prices dropped back to their previous low levels. This change, combined with other factors, such as lifted subsidies and higher interest rates, created a crisis for Swedish heat pump industry. The industry underwent a 10-year period of low sales of small heat pumps and the market for large heat pumps died out and never returned. Nevertheless, several connections between heat pump–related complementarities remained in Sweden after the mid-1980s. In conjunction with value network reconfigurations, changes in company ownerships and governmental industry support, these complementarities helped the Swedish heat pump sector to maintain both production and service capacity. Due to developments that took place largely outside the heat pump manufacturing sector, by the mid-1990s it became possible for the struggling Swedish industry to offer more reliable and standardised heat pumps to the Swedish home heating market. During the years after 1995, the Swedish heat pump market grew to become the biggest in Europe. The industry’s early development and growth gave Swedish companies a comparative advantage over its European competitors, with the result that the manufacturing of heat pumps remained concentrated to Swedish-based manufacturing facilities even after the Swedish heat pump industry became internationalised after 2005. As of 2015, Sweden had the greatest amount of heat production from heat pumps per capita of any European nation, and many heat pump markets in other European countries are 10 to 20 years behind the Swedish market in development. This thesis shows how the Swedish heat pump industry has co-evolved with the market and how developments in the industry contributed towards causing the transition to heat pumps to occur so early in Sweden relative to other European markets. It also shows that coopetition dynamics in a socio-technical transition change with the emergence and characteristics of structural tensions between complementarities, which has implications for the strategic management of external relations and partnerships during socio-technical transitions. It further argues that the combination of the value network, coopetition, and complementarity concepts can be conceptualised for descriptive and exploratory studies on the role of firms and industries in socio-technical transitions, thereby offering a complement to existing dominant frameworks in the area of transition studies. / För närvarande har mer än hälften av alla svenska husägare en installerad värmepump. Värmepumpar levererar mer värme per capita i Sverige än i något annat land. Men trots värmepumparnas stora genomslag i det svenska energisystemet har övergången från olja och el till värmepumpar gått relativt obemärkt förbi. Därav titeln på denna avhandling, ”en tyst revolution”. Denna avhandling ger en djupgående beskrivning av den svenska övergången från olja och el till värmepumpar och av hur den svenska industrin bidragit till utvecklingen inom det svenska värmepumps- området. Forskningsansatsen i denna avhandling bygger på ett värdenätverks- och ’coopetition’-perspektiv i kombination med användningen av det dynamiska analytiska begreppet komplementaritet. Denna ansats är inspirerad av Verna Allees (2009) och Erik Dahméns (1991) arbeten. Begreppet värdenätverk används i denna avhandling för att beskriva det nätverk av aktörer som omger en specifik affärsmodell, begreppet ’coopetition’ används för att beskriva relationerna mellan aktörer (som både konkurrerande och samarbetande) och begreppet komplementaritet används för att analysera dynamiken mellan synergistiska delar och värdenätverk i den svenska värmepumpsektorn och det svenska energisystemet. Genom detta tillvägagångssätt beskrivs hur ett hållbart nät av relationer och ömsesidiga beroenden mellan komplementariteter har utvecklats, dels inom själva värmepumps- sektorn, dels mellan värmepumpssektorn och energisystemet i Sverige, under den svenska övergången mot ökad användning av värmepumpar. Intresset för värmepumpar steg i både Europa och Sverige under 1970- talet. Det svenska energisystemet var under tryck från både internationella oljekriser och nationell politisk mobilisering mot svensk kärnkrafts-utbyggnad. Under denna period när det svenska energisystemet var under negativt omvandlingstryck framstod värmepumpen som ett lovande alternativ som skulle kunna minska användningen av både olja och el för uppvärmning i Sverige. På 1970- talet bildades en svensk värmepumpindustri i samband med en växande värmepumpsmarknad. Ett stort antal aktörer av olika typer engagerade sig i den växande svenska värmepumpsektorn under denna period. Den intensiva samarbetsdynamiken kring värmepumpar som följde oljekrisen från 1970-talet bidrog till bildandet av varaktiga kopplingar mellan komplementariteter under denna tidiga fas i värmepumpsövergången. Under tidigt 1980-tal steg den relativa försäljningen av villavärmepumpar kraftigt och under mitten av 1980- talet skedde en ännu kraftigare utveckling av stora värmepumpar i svenska fjärrvärmeanläggningar. Men i mitten av 1980-talet sjönk oljepriset tillbaka till sina tidigare låga nivåer. I kombination med andra faktorer, så som slopade subventioner och höjd ränta, uppstod en kris för värmepumpar i Sverige. Den följande 10-års perioden karakteriserades av låg försäljning av små värmepumpar. Marknaden för stora värmepumpar försvann helt och skulle aldrig återkomma. Men flera kopplingar mellan värmepumpsrelaterade komplementarier kvarstod i Sverige även efter mitten av 1980-talet. I kombination med värdenätverkskonfigurationer, förändringar i företagsägande och statligt stöd till industrin, bidrog dessa hållbara kopplingar mellan komplementarier till att upprätthålla både produktion och servicefunktioner inom den svenska värmepumpsektorn. På grund av den tekniska utvecklingen, som i stor utsträckning skedde utanför tillverkningssektorn, blev det i mitten av 1990-talet möjligt för den kämpande svenska värmepumpsindustrin att erbjuda mer pålitliga och standardiserade villavärmepumpar till den svenska hemmamarknaden. Under åren efter 1995 växte den svenska värmepumpmarknaden till att bli den största i Europa. Den svenska marknadens och industrins utveckling och tillväxt gav svenska företag en relativ fördel gentemot sina eftersläntrande europeiska konkurrenter, med följden att tillverkningen av värmepumpar förblev koncentrerad till svenska anläggningar även efter det att en stor del av svensk värmepumpsindustri blivit uppköpt av utländska företag efter 2005. År 2015 var Sverige fortfarande det land med mest värme från värmepumpar per capita i Europa och den svenska utvecklingen var 10- 20 år före andra europeiska värmepumpmarknader. Denna avhandling beskriver samutvecklingen mellan den svenska värmepumpssektorn och det svenska energisystemet och hur den industriella utvecklingen bidragit till att den svenska övergången till värmepumpar var relativt tidig i jämförelse med andra europeiska marknader. Avhandlingen visar också att aktörsdynamiken i en socio- teknisk övergång förändras med uppkomsten av strukturella spänningar mellan komplementariteter, vilket har betydelse för hur externa relationer och partnerskap hanteras av företag och organisationer som genomgår omfattande socio-tekniska övergångar. Vidare argumenteras för att begreppen värdenätverk, coopetition, och komplementariteter kan kombineras i ett konceptuellt ramverk för att beskriva och analysera företags och industriers roller i omfattande socio-tekniska övergångar och därigenom komplettera nuvarande dominerande konceptuella ramverk för studier av omfattande socio-tekniska övergångar. / <p>QC 20171023</p>

This work deals with the topic „Heating buildings building resources on different types of fuel in assessing economic benefits“. On this theme is elaborated theoretical part, then the topic is applied to the specified building. The project is design central heating, water heating, water heater design power unit. The project is designed in two versions. In the first variant are the heat source gas boilers. In the second variant are the heat source heat pumps.