Addiction to psychostimulants such as methamphetamine (MA) is a significant public health issue in the United States with no FDA-approved pharmacological interventions. MA addiction is a heritable neuropsychiatric disorder, however, its genetic basis is almost entirely unknown. Available human genome-wide association studies (GWAS) lack sufficient power to detect the influence of common genetic variation on the risk of addiction. Mammalian model organisms offer an attractive alternative to more rapidly uncover novel genetic factors that contribute to addiction-relevant neurobehavioral traits. Using quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping in mice, we identified a locus on chromosome 11 that contributed to a decrease in sensitivity to the locomotor stimulant properties of MA. To fine map this QTL, we generated interval-specific congenic lines and deduced a 206 kb critical interval on chromosome 11 that contained only two protein coding genes (Rufy1 and Hnrnph1). Replicate mouse lines heterozygous for Transcription Activator-like Effector Nucleases (TALENs)-induced frameshift deletions in Hnrnph1 (Hnrnph1+/-), but not in Rufy1 (Rufy1+/-), recapitulated the decrease in MA sensitivity observed in congenic mice; thus, identifying Hnrnph1 as a novel quantitative trait gene for MA sensitivity. Hnrnph1, an RNA-binding protein, has not previously been identified in human GWAS of neuropsychiatric disorders but has been implicated in mu-opioid receptor splicing associated with heroin dependence. The primary objectives of this dissertation is to (1) detail the forward genetic and reverse genetic approaches taken to identify Hnrnph1 as a quantitative trait gene for MA sensitivity; (2) assess the MA addiction-relevant behaviors presented by Hnrnph1+/- mice through conditioned place preference (CPP) and oral self-administration procedures; and (3) identify the neurobiological mechanisms through which Hnrnph1 affects behavior via transcriptome, immunohistochemical and neurochemical assessments of the mesocorticolimbic dopamine circuit. Overall, Hnrnph1+/- mice display increased dopaminergic innervation and MA dose-dependent dopamine release in nucleus accumbens, which could underlie reduced drug sensitivity, reward, and reinforcement. The results of this thesis provide substantial evidence to implicate Hnrnph1 in MA addiction.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第21646号 / 医博第4452号 / 新制||医||1034(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 武田 俊一, 教授 萩原 正敏, 教授 滝田 順子 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

In mammals, a major fraction of the genome is transcribed as non-coding RNAs. An increasing amount of evidence has accumulated showing that non-coding RNAs play important roles both for normal cell function and in disease processes such as cancer or neurodegeneration. Interpreting the functions of non-coding RNAs and the molecular mechanisms through which they act is one of the most important challenges facing RNA biology today. In my Ph.D. thesis, I have been investigating the role of 7SK, one of the most abundant non-coding RNAs, in the development and function of motoneurons. 7SK is a highly structured 331 nt RNA transcribed by RNA polymerase III. It forms four stem-loop (SL) structures that serve as binding sites for different proteins. Larp7 binds to SL4 and protects the 3' end from exonucleolytic degradation. SL1 serves as a binding site for HEXIM1, which recruits the pTEFb complex composed of CDK9 and cyclin T1. pTEFb has a stimulatory role for transcription and is regulated through sequestration by 7SK. More recently, a number of heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins (hnRNPs) have been identified as 7SK interactors. One of these is hnRNP R, which has been shown to have a role in motoneuron development by regulating axon growth. Taken together, 7SK’s function involves interactions with RNA binding proteins, and different RNA binding proteins interact with different regions of 7SK, such that 7SK can be considered as a hub for recruitment and release of different proteins. The questions I have addressed during my Ph.D. are as follows: 1) which region of 7SK interacts with hnRNP R, a main interactor of 7SK? 2) What effects occur in motoneurons after the protein binding sites of 7SK are abolished? 3) Are there additional 7SK binding proteins that regulate the functions of the 7SK RNP? Using in vitro and in vivo experiments, I found that hnRNP R binds both the SL1 and SL3 region of 7SK, and also that pTEFb cannot be recruited after deleting the SL1 region but is able to bind to a 7SK mutant with deletion of SL3. In order to answer the question of how the 7SK mutations affect axon outgrowth and elongation in mouse primary motoneurons, we proceeded to conduct rescue experiments in motoneurons by using lentiviral vectors. The constructs were designed to express 7SK deletion mutants under the mouse U6 promoter and at the same time to drive expression of a 7SK shRNA from an H1 promoter for the depletion of endogenous 7SK. Using this system we found that 7SK mutants harboring deletions of either SL1 or SL3 could not rescue the axon growth defect of 7SK-depleted motoneurons suggesting that 7SK/hnRNP R complexes are integral for this process. In order to identify novel 7SK binding proteins and investigate their functions, I proceeded to conduct pull-down experiments by using a biotinylated RNA antisense oligonucleotide that targets the U17-C33 region of 7SK thereby purifying endogenous 7SK complexes. Following mass spectrometry of purified 7SK complexes, we identified a number of novel 7SK interactors. Among these is the Smn complex. Deficiency of the Smn complex causes the motoneuron disease spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) characterized by loss of lower motoneurons in the spinal cord. Smn has previously been shown to interact with hnRNP R. Accordingly, we found Smn as part of 7SK/hnRNP R complexes. These proteomics data suggest that 7SK potentially plays important roles in different signaling pathways in addition to transcription. / Bei Säugetieren wird ein großer Teil des Genoms als nicht-kodierende RNAs transkribiert. Es gibt immer mehr Hinweise darauf, dass nicht-kodierende RNAs eine wichtige Rolle sowohl für die normale Zellfunktion als auch bei Krankheitsprozessen wie Krebs oder Neurodegeneration spielen. Die Interpretation der Funktionen nicht-kodierender RNAs und der molekularen Mechanismen, über die sie wirken, ist eine der wichtigsten Herausforderungen, denen die RNA-Biologie heute gegenübersteht. In meiner Promotionsarbeit habe ich die Rolle von 7SK, einer der am häufigsten vorkommenden nicht-kodierenden RNAs, bei der Entwicklung und Funktion von Motoneuronen untersucht. 7SK ist eine RNA, die aus 331 Nukleotiden besteht und deren Struktur bekannt ist. Sie wird von der RNA-Polymerase III transkribiert. Sie bildet vier Stem-Loop (SL)-Strukturen, die als Bindungsstellen für verschiedene Proteine dienen. LARP7 bindet an SL4 und schützt das 3'-Ende vor exonukleolytischem Abbau. SL1 dient als Bindungsstelle für HEXIM1, das den P-TEFb-Komplex rekrutiert, der aus CDK9 und Cyclin T1 besteht. P-TEFb hat eine stimulierende Rolle für die Transkription und wird durch Sequestrierung durch 7SK reguliert. In jüngerer Zeit wurde eine Reihe von heterogenen nukleären Ribonukleoproteinen (hnRNPs) als 7SK-Interaktoren identifiziert. Eines davon ist hnRNP R, von dem gezeigt wurde, dass es eine Rolle bei der Entwicklung von Motoneuronen spielt, indem es das Axonwachstum reguliert. Durch die Interaktion mit P-TEFb und RNA-bindenden Proteinen kann 7SK als Drehscheibe für die Rekrutierung und Freisetzung verschiedener Proteine betrachtet werden. Die Fragen, mit denen ich mich während meiner Doktorarbeit beschäftigt habe, lauten wie folgt: 1) Welche Region von 7SK interagiert mit hnRNP R, einem Hauptinteraktor von 7SK? 2) Welche Effekte treten in Motoneuronen auf, wenn die Bindung von hnRNP R an 7SK inhibiert wird? 3) Gibt es zusätzliche 7SK-bindende Proteine, die die Funktionen des 7SK RNPs regulieren? Mit Hilfe von in vitro und in vivo Experimenten fand ich heraus, dass hnRNP R sowohl die SL1- als auch die SL3-Region von 7SK bindet, und dass P-TEFb nach der Deletion der SL1-Region nicht rekrutiert werden kann, aber in der Lage ist, an eine 7SK-Mutante mit Deletion von SL3 zu binden. Um die Frage zu beantworten, wie sich die 7SK-Mutationen auf Axonwachstum in primären Motoneuronen der Maus auswirken, führten wir Rettungsexperimente an Motoneuronen unter Verwendung lentiviraler Vektoren durch. Die Konstrukte wurden so konzipiert, dass sie 7SK-Deletionsmutanten durch den U6-Promotor der Maus exprimieren und gleichzeitig eine 7SK-shRNA von einem H1-Promotor für die Depletion von endogenem 7SK transkribieren. Mit diesem System fanden wir heraus, dass 7SK-Mutanten, die Deletionen von SL1 oder SL3 beherbergen, den Axon-Wachstumsdefekt von 7SK-depletierten Motoneuronen nicht retten konnten, was darauf hindeutet, dass 7SK/hnRNP R-Komplexe für diesen Prozess von Bedeutung sind. Um neue 7SK-Bindungsproteine zu identifizieren und ihre Funktionen zu untersuchen, führte ich Pulldown-Experimente durch, bei denen ich ein biotinyliertes RNA-Antisense-Oligonukleotid verwendete, das an die U17-C33-Region von 7SK bindet und dadurch Aufreinigung endogener 7SK-Komplexe erlaubt. Nach der Massenspektrometrie der gereinigten 7SK-Komplexe identifizierten wir eine Reihe neuer 7SK-Interaktoren. Einer davon ist der Smn-Komplex. Ein Mangel des Smn-Komplexes verursacht die Motoneuronerkrankung Spinale Muskelatrophie (SMA), die durch den Verlust der unteren Motoneuronen im Rückenmark gekennzeichnet ist. Es wurde bereits gezeigt, dass Smn mit hnRNP R interagiert. Dementsprechend fanden wir Smn als Teil des 7SK/hnRNP R-Komplexes. Diese Proteom-Daten deuten darauf hin, dass 7SK neben der Transkription möglicherweise auch in anderen Signalwegen wie der spliceosomalen snRNP Biogenese eine wichtige Rolle spielt.

Les protéines de liaison à l'ARN (PLA) s'assemblent en complexes cytoplasmiques avec les ARNm pour contrôler la traduction locale des ARNm et le transport axonal. Ces processus sont essentiels au maintien de la survie des neurones et leur déficience est impliquée dans le développement de nombreuses maladies neurodégénératives, telles que la SLA. Il a été montré ultérieurement que la déplétion nucléaire de TDP-43, liée à la SLA, entraîne l'accumulation d'une variante épissée alternativement de la ribonucléoprotéine nucléaire hétérogène A1 (hnRNP A1). Cette isoforme, appelée hnRNP A1B, possède une région désordonnée (RID) et, dans le contexte neuronal, localise dans les neurites et dans le noyau, alors que la hnRNP A1 localise majoritairement dans le noyau. Ceci appui l'hypothèse que la hnRNP A1B peut avoir une fonction cytosolique dans les neurones qui n'est pas partagée avec la hnRNP A1. En outre, les hnRNP A1 et hnRNP A1B sont mutées dans de rares cas de SLA familiale, dont certaines mutations sont spécifiques à la hnRNP A1B. Jusqu'à présent, la littérature se concentre sur l'isoforme hnRNPA1 tandis que peu est répertorié sur la fonction de la hnRNP A1B. Ainsi, cette étude vise à déterminer et caractériser la fonction cytosolique de la hnRNP A1B dans les neurones. Puisque très peu est répertorié sur la hnRNP A1B, il a fallu tout d’abord déterminer des partenaires d’interaction. Ainsi, une immunoprécipitation utilisant un anticorps spécifique à la hnRNP A1B suivi d'une spectrométrie de masse (IP-MS) a été réalisée sur la moelle épinière de souris. Les résultats soulèvent que de nombreux interacteurs de la hnRNP A1B sont associés au trafic intracellulaire dépendant du cytosquelette. Les interactions avec KLC1/KIF5C/Myh9/DyncIHI ont été validées par des tests d'immunoprécipitation et de colocalisation. Aussi, l’impact de certains mutants hnRNP A1B associés à la SLA ont été étudiées au niveau des interactions avec les protéines motrices. Des expériences visant à évaluer comment la hnRNP A1B peut être transportée, ainsi que réguler le transport, sont en cours. Les résultats confirment que la hnRNP A1B peut avoir une fonction cytosolique dans les neurones pour le transport axonal/dendritique de l'ARNm. Des études futures exploreront cette nouvelle fonction dans le contexte de la SLA. / RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) assemble into cytoplasmic complexes with mRNAs to control mRNA local translation and axonal transport. These processes are essential for maintaining neuronal survival and their impairment is implicated in the development of many neurodegenerative diseases, such as ALS. We have discovered that TDP-43 depletion, linked to ALS, drives the accumulation of an alternatively spliced variant of heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1 (hnRNP A1). This isoform, termed hnRNP A1B, has an elongated prion-like domain (PrLD) and is present in neuronal processes, while hnRNP A1 is not. This finding supports a hypothesis that hnRNP A1B may have a cytosolic function in neurons that is not shared with hnRNP A1. In addition, hnRNP A1 and hnRNP A1B are mutated in rare cases of familial ALS with some mutations specific to hnRNP A1B. To date, the literature has mostly focused on the hnRNPA1 isoform and little is known about hnRNP A1B function. Thus, this study aims to identify and characterize the cytosolic function of hnRNP A1B in neurons. Since very little is known about hnRNP A1B, it was first necessary to identify interaction partners of the protein. Thus, immunoprecipitation using an antibody specific to hnRNP A1B followed by mass spectrometry (IP-MS) was performed on mouse spinal cord. Our results show that many hnRNP A1B interactors are associated with cytoskeletal-dependent intracellular trafficking. We then proceed to validate the interactions with the motor proteins KLC1/KIF5C/Myh9, by immunoprecipitation and proximity ligation assays. In addition, some hnRNP A1B ALS mutants were studied in the context of these interactions. Experiments to evaluate how hnRNP A1B may be transported, as well as regulate transport are currently underway. Our findings support that hnRNP A1B may have a cytosolic function in neurons in mRNA axonal/dendritic transport. Future studies will explore this novel function in the ALS context.

Les modifications post-transcriptionnelles de l’ARN messager (ARNm), comme l’épissage alternatif, jouent un rôle important dans la régulation du développement embryonnaire, de la fonction cellulaire et de l’immunité. De nouvelles évidences révèlent que l’épissage alternatif serait également impliqué dans la régulation de la maturation et de l’activation des cellules du système hématopoïétique. Le facteur hnRNP L a été identifié comme étant le principal régulateur de l’épissage alternatif du gène codant pour le récepteur CD45 in vitro. Le récepteur CD45 est une tyrosine phosphatase exprimée par toutes les cellules du système hématopoïétique qui contrôle le développement et l’activation des lymphocytes T. Dans un premier temps, nous avons étudié la fonction du facteur hnRNP L dans le développement des lymphocytes T et dans l’épissage de l’ARNm de CD45 in vivo en utilisant des souris dont le gène de hnRNP L a été supprimé spécifiquement dans les cellules T. La délétion de hnRNP L dans les thymocytes résulte en une expression aberrante des différents isoformes de CD45 avec une prédominance de l'isoforme CD45RA qui est généralement absent dans le thymus. Une conséquence de la délétion de hnRNP L est une diminution de la cellularité du thymus causée par un blocage partiel du développement des cellules pré-T au stade DN4. Cette réduction du nombre de cellules dans le thymus n’est pas liée à une hausse de la mort cellulaire. Les thymocytes déficients pour hnRNP L démontrent plutôt une prolifération augmentée comparée aux thymocytes sauvages due à une hyper-activation des kinases Lck, Erk1/2 et Akt. De plus, la délétion de hnRNP L dans le thymus cause une perte des cellules T en périphérie. Les résultats des expériences in vitro suggèrent que cette perte est principalement due à un défaut de migration des thymocytes déficients pour hnRNP L du thymus vers la périphérie en réponse aux chimiokines. L’épissage alternatif de CD45 ne peut expliquer ce phénotype mais l’identification de cibles par RNA-Seq a révélé un rôle de hnRNP L dans la régulation de l’épissage alternatif de facteurs impliqués dans la polymérisation de l’actine. Dans un second temps, nous avons étudié le rôle de hnRNP L dans l’hématopoïèse en utilisant des souris dont la délétion de hnRNP L était spécifique aux cellules hématopoïétiques dans les foies fœtaux et la moelle osseuse. L’ablation de hnRNP L réduit le nombre de cellules progénitrices incluant les cellules progénitrices lymphocytaires (CLPs), myéloïdes (CMPs, GMPs) et mégakaryocytes-érythrocytaires (MEPs) et une perte des cellules hématopoïétiques matures. À l’opposé des cellules progénitrices multipotentes (MPPs) qui sont affectées en absence de hnRNP L, la population de cellules souches hématopoïétiques (HSCs) n’est pas réduite et prolifère plus que les cellules contrôles. Cependant, les HSCs n’exprimant pas hnRNP L sont positives pour l'Annexin V et expriment CD95 ce qui suggère une mort cellulaire prononcée. Comme pour les thymocytes, une analyse par RNA-Seq des foies fœtaux a révélé différents gènes cibles de hnRNP L appartenant aux catégories reliées à la mort cellulaire, la réponse aux dommages à l’ADN et à l’adhésion cellulaire qui peuvent tous expliquer le phénotype des cellules n’exprimant pas le gène hnRNP L. Ces résultats suggèrent que hnRNP L et l’épissage alternatif sont essentiels pour maintenir le potentiel de différenciation des cellules souches hématopoïétiques et leur intégrité fonctionnelle. HnRNP L est aussi crucial pour le développement des cellules T par la régulation de l’épissage de CD45 ainsi que pour leur migration. / Post-transcriptional modifications of pre-mRNA by alternative splicing are important for cellular function, development and immunity. New evidence reveals that alternative splicing is implicated in the regulation of maturation and activation of hematopoietic cells. HnRNP L has been identified as the main regulator of alternative splicing of CD45 in vitro. The receptor tyrosine phosphatase CD45, which is expressed on all hematopoietic cells, is known for its role in the development and activation of T cells. First, we have investigated the function of hnRNP L in T cell development and CD45 pre-mRNA splicing in vivo using T cell specific deletion of hnRNP L in mice. The hnRNP L deletion results in aberrant expression of CD45 isoforms, predominantly CD45RA, which is usually absent from the thymus. Ablation of hnRNP L results in a partial block in pre-T cell development at the DN4 stage. This reduction in thymic cellularity is not due to an increase in cell death. In fact, hnRNP L deficient thymocytes demonstrate accelerated proliferation compared to wild-type cells due principally to a hyper-activation of the kinases Lck, Erk1/2 and Akt. Moreover, hnRNP L deletion results in a loss of peripheral T cells. In vitro studies suggest that this loss of peripheral cells is caused by a defect in response to chemokine signals. Since CD45 pre-mRNA splicing cannot explain this phenotype, the identification of hnRNP L targets by RNA-Seq has shown that hnRNP L plays a role in the regulation of alternative splicing of factors involved in actin polymerization. Secondly, we studied the role of hnRNP L in hematopoiesis using knockout mice in which hnRNP L is conditionally deleted specifically in fetal liver and bone marrow hematopoietic cells. Ablation of hnRNP L reduces the number of cell lineage committed progenitors including the common lymphoid progenitors (CLPs), common myeloid and granulocyte progenitors (CMPs, GMPs) and the megakaryocyte-erythrocyte progenitors (MEPs) as well as the mature hematopoietic cells. In contrast to multipotent progenitors (MPPs) that are affected by the absence of hnRNP L, the hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) population is not reduced. In fact, HSCs from hnRNP L deleted mice demonstrate increased cell cycling. However, hnRNP L deficient HSCs express high levels of Annexin V and CD95, which suggests an increased cell death. As for the thymus, a RNA-Seq analysis of fetal livers revealed different targets of hnRNP L among gene categories related to cell death, DNA damage responses and cell adhesion that may explain the phenotype observed in the hnRNP L deficient HSCs. These results suggest that hnRNP L and alternative splicing are essential for the survival and maintenance of the differentiation potential of HSCs. HnRNP L is also crucial for the development of T cells by regulating both their migration and the splicing of CD45.

La protéine Tat du VIH-1 est essentielle à la multiplication virale. Elle permet la transactivation de la transcription et, par ses propriétés apoptotiques, elle participe à la pathologie SIDA. D'où l'importance d'étudier les mécanismes régulant sa production. L'épissage alternatif de l'ARN du VIH-1, en particulier, l'utilisation des sites accepteurs d'épissage A3 et A7 est nécessaire pour la production des ARNm tat. L'utilisation du site A3 est fortement régulée par des éléments agissant en cis contenus dans une structure tige-boucle SLS3A3 située en aval du site A3. En purifiant les complexes RNP formés en extrait nucléaire sur un segment de l'ARN viral renfermant le site A3, et en analysant par spectrométrie de masse les protéines contenues dans ces complexes, nous avons pu mettre en évidence la fixation d'une protéine inhibitrice de l'utilisation du site A3, la protéine DAZAP1. Sur la base d'un ensemble de données antérieures du laboratoire et de nouvelles données que j'ai obtenues, nous avons montré que la protéine SRSF7, sans doute en synergie avec SRSF1, limite la fixation de DAZAP1 et active l'épissage au site A3. Nous avons aussi montré que la protéine virale Tat exerce un rétro-contrôle négatif au niveau de la production de l?ARNm tat, ceci en limitant l'activation du site A3 par SRSF7. La partie apicale de la structure tige-boucle SLS3A3 (motif B) est très conservée dans les souches de VIH-1. L'équipe d'E Guittet a déterminé sa structure 3D par RMN. La conformation de sa boucle terminale est caractéristique des structures tige-boucle reconnues par les protéines à domaines dsRBD (double stranded RNA Binding Domain). J'ai pu confirmer cette hypothèse en purifiant les complexes formés par le motif B en extrait nucléaire. Nous avons ainsi pu montrer que la protéine kinase PKR, qui joue chez l'Homme un rôle majeur dans la réponse à une infection virale, est un partenaire du motif B. Par utilisation de sondes chimiques de la structure 2D de l'ARN, j'ai pu montrer que la structure tige-boucle SLS3A3, contenant le codon d'initiation de l'ORF Tat, est présente dans l'ARNm tat1. Nous avons alors développé un système visant à étudier les mécanismes de régulation de l'initiation de la traduction de la protéine Tat. Par l'emploi d'une construction bicistronique, j'ai pu confirmer l'existence d'une activité IRES dans la région 5'UTRtat1 de l'ARNm tat1 et définir deux segments ayant cette activité. Des résultats préliminaires obtenus avec une construction bicistronique, nous ont permis de commencer à tester l'effet de différentes protéines SR et hnRNP sur l'activité de ces IRES / HIV-1 Tat protein is essential for viral replication. It allows the transcription of full-length viral RNAs, and due to its apoptotic properties it contributes to the AIDS disease. Hence, it is important to study the mechanisms regulating its production. Alternative splicing of the HIV-1 RNA, in particular, the use of acceptor sites A3 and A7 is required for tat mRNA production. Splicing at site A3 is highly regulated by cis-acting elements contained in a stem-loop structure SLS3A3, located downstream from site A3. By purifying RNP complexes formed in nuclear extract on a segment of the viral RNA containing site A3 followed by mass spectrometry analysis, we were able to highlight the binding of a new inhibitory protein, DAZAP1. Based on a set of ancient laboratory data and new results that I obtained, we have shown that SRSF7 protein, probably in synergy with SRSF1, limits the binding of DAZAP1 and splicing activation at site A3. We also showed that the viral protein Tat exerts a negative feedback control on tat mRNA production by restricting splicing activation of site A3 by SRSF7. The apical part of the stem-loop structure SLS3A3 (B motif) is highly conserved among HIV-1 strains. E Guittet team determined its 3D structure by NMR. The conformation of this apical loop is characteristic of stem-loop structures recognized by dsRBD proteins (double-stranded RNA binding domain). I was able to confirm this hypothesis by purifying RNP complexes formed by the B motif in nuclear extract. Thus, we have shown that the RNA dependent protein kinase (PKR), which plays in humans a major role in response to viral infection, is a partner of the B motif. By using chemical probes specific of the 2D structure of RNAs, I showed that the stem-loop structure SLS3A3 that contains the initiation codon of Tat is present in tat1 mRNA. We then developed a system to study the mechanisms regulating the initiation of translation of Tat protein. By using a bicistronic construct, I was able to confirm the existence of IRES activity in the 5?UTRtat1 region of tat1 mRNA, and define two segments that contain this activity. Preliminary results obtained with a bicistronic construct allowed us to begin testing the effect of different SR and hnRNP proteins on the activity of the IRES

O Projeto Genoma Humano do Câncer (PGHC), financiado pela FAPESP e pelo Instituto Ludwig de Pesquisa sobre o câncer, buscou identificar os genes expressos nos tipos mais comuns de câncer no Brasil. Tal projeto conseguiu identificar aproximadamente um milhão de seqüências de genes de tumores freqüentes no Brasil. A contribuição brasileira foi maior para tumores de cabeça e pescoço, mama e cólon. Uma das iniciativas mais recentes e estimuladas pelo PGHC é o projeto Genoma Clínico, o qual visa desenvolver novas formas de diagnóstico e tratamento do câncer através do estudo de genes expressos. A partir da análise molecular de tecidos saudáveis e neoplásicos em diferentes estágios, é possível identificar marcadores de prognóstico, permitindo escolhas de terapias mais adequadas e eficientes. A proteína hnRNP K foi identificada como um desses marcadores, em neoplasias da região da cabeça e pescoço, sendo objetivo deste estudo a aplicação de técnicas de bioinformática e modelagem molecular no planejamento baseado em estrutura de candidatos a fármacos antineoplásicos que bloqueiem a atividade da proteína. A proteína hnRNP K apresenta diversas funções e é encontrada nos mais diversos compartimentos celulares, interferindo, basicamente, no sistema de expressão gênica. Essa proteína apresenta 3 domínios KH, os quais são responsáveis por sua ligação à moléculas de DNA e RNA. Modelos de boa qualidade dos domínios KH foram construídos através da estratégia de modelagem molecular por homologia estrutural. Após screening virtual em bases de dados de compostos (330.000 aproximadamente) com propriedades drug-like, 15 compostos com potencial de interação com o domínio KH3 foram selecionados. Os modos de ligação para cada um dos mesmos no sítio ligante do domínio KH3 foram sugeridos por simulações de docking e apresentaram um bom encaixe espacial com os sítios receptores virtuais calculados pelos campos de interação molecular. Simulações de dinâmica molecular foram realizadas com o intuito de avaliar a estabilidade dos compostos selecionados, que também foram avaliados quanto à presença de grupamentos toxicofóricos em sua estrutura. / The Brazilian Project Genoma Câncer (PGHC) supported by FAPESP and the Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, intended to identify the genes involved in the most common cases of cancer in Brazil. In this project about a million of gene sequences were identified. The major contribution was made in breast, colorectal and head and neck cancers. The results obtained stimulated the creation of another project, called Genoma Clínico, which intend to develop new trends in treatments and diagnosis of cancer based on the study of expressed genes. Analyzing healthy and neoplasic tissues in different stages, it is possible to identify molecular markers related to the prognosis of cancer, allowing the use of more efficient therapies. The hnRNP K protein was identified as a molecular marker in head and neck cancer, where the objective of this work lies in the application of bioinformatics and molecular modeling strategies by structure-based drug design to identify potential antineoplasic drug candicates that could act against hnRNP K protein. The hnRNP K protein is encountered in all cellular compartments and act, basically, in the gene expression pathways. Its structure is composed by three KH domains that mediate interactions with DNA and RNA molecules. High quality models of KH domains were built by homology modeling. After the virtual screening simulations performed with drug-like compound databases, containing approximately 330.000 compounds, 15 were selected as potential ligands of KH3 domain of hnRNP K. The binding modes suggested for these compounds, by docking simulations, presented a good spatial fit when compared with the virtual receptor sites calculated by molecular interaction fields. Molecular dynamics simulations were performed in order to evaluate de stability of the binding modes suggested. The potential ligands were also evaluated to identify toxicophoric features in its chemical structures.

Les modifications post-transcriptionnelles de l’ARN messager (ARNm), comme l’épissage alternatif, jouent un rôle important dans la régulation du développement embryonnaire, de la fonction cellulaire et de l’immunité. De nouvelles évidences révèlent que l’épissage alternatif serait également impliqué dans la régulation de la maturation et de l’activation des cellules du système hématopoïétique. Le facteur hnRNP L a été identifié comme étant le principal régulateur de l’épissage alternatif du gène codant pour le récepteur CD45 in vitro. Le récepteur CD45 est une tyrosine phosphatase exprimée par toutes les cellules du système hématopoïétique qui contrôle le développement et l’activation des lymphocytes T. Dans un premier temps, nous avons étudié la fonction du facteur hnRNP L dans le développement des lymphocytes T et dans l’épissage de l’ARNm de CD45 in vivo en utilisant des souris dont le gène de hnRNP L a été supprimé spécifiquement dans les cellules T. La délétion de hnRNP L dans les thymocytes résulte en une expression aberrante des différents isoformes de CD45 avec une prédominance de l'isoforme CD45RA qui est généralement absent dans le thymus. Une conséquence de la délétion de hnRNP L est une diminution de la cellularité du thymus causée par un blocage partiel du développement des cellules pré-T au stade DN4. Cette réduction du nombre de cellules dans le thymus n’est pas liée à une hausse de la mort cellulaire. Les thymocytes déficients pour hnRNP L démontrent plutôt une prolifération augmentée comparée aux thymocytes sauvages due à une hyper-activation des kinases Lck, Erk1/2 et Akt. De plus, la délétion de hnRNP L dans le thymus cause une perte des cellules T en périphérie. Les résultats des expériences in vitro suggèrent que cette perte est principalement due à un défaut de migration des thymocytes déficients pour hnRNP L du thymus vers la périphérie en réponse aux chimiokines. L’épissage alternatif de CD45 ne peut expliquer ce phénotype mais l’identification de cibles par RNA-Seq a révélé un rôle de hnRNP L dans la régulation de l’épissage alternatif de facteurs impliqués dans la polymérisation de l’actine. Dans un second temps, nous avons étudié le rôle de hnRNP L dans l’hématopoïèse en utilisant des souris dont la délétion de hnRNP L était spécifique aux cellules hématopoïétiques dans les foies fœtaux et la moelle osseuse. L’ablation de hnRNP L réduit le nombre de cellules progénitrices incluant les cellules progénitrices lymphocytaires (CLPs), myéloïdes (CMPs, GMPs) et mégakaryocytes-érythrocytaires (MEPs) et une perte des cellules hématopoïétiques matures. À l’opposé des cellules progénitrices multipotentes (MPPs) qui sont affectées en absence de hnRNP L, la population de cellules souches hématopoïétiques (HSCs) n’est pas réduite et prolifère plus que les cellules contrôles. Cependant, les HSCs n’exprimant pas hnRNP L sont positives pour l'Annexin V et expriment CD95 ce qui suggère une mort cellulaire prononcée. Comme pour les thymocytes, une analyse par RNA-Seq des foies fœtaux a révélé différents gènes cibles de hnRNP L appartenant aux catégories reliées à la mort cellulaire, la réponse aux dommages à l’ADN et à l’adhésion cellulaire qui peuvent tous expliquer le phénotype des cellules n’exprimant pas le gène hnRNP L. Ces résultats suggèrent que hnRNP L et l’épissage alternatif sont essentiels pour maintenir le potentiel de différenciation des cellules souches hématopoïétiques et leur intégrité fonctionnelle. HnRNP L est aussi crucial pour le développement des cellules T par la régulation de l’épissage de CD45 ainsi que pour leur migration. / Post-transcriptional modifications of pre-mRNA by alternative splicing are important for cellular function, development and immunity. New evidence reveals that alternative splicing is implicated in the regulation of maturation and activation of hematopoietic cells. HnRNP L has been identified as the main regulator of alternative splicing of CD45 in vitro. The receptor tyrosine phosphatase CD45, which is expressed on all hematopoietic cells, is known for its role in the development and activation of T cells. First, we have investigated the function of hnRNP L in T cell development and CD45 pre-mRNA splicing in vivo using T cell specific deletion of hnRNP L in mice. The hnRNP L deletion results in aberrant expression of CD45 isoforms, predominantly CD45RA, which is usually absent from the thymus. Ablation of hnRNP L results in a partial block in pre-T cell development at the DN4 stage. This reduction in thymic cellularity is not due to an increase in cell death. In fact, hnRNP L deficient thymocytes demonstrate accelerated proliferation compared to wild-type cells due principally to a hyper-activation of the kinases Lck, Erk1/2 and Akt. Moreover, hnRNP L deletion results in a loss of peripheral T cells. In vitro studies suggest that this loss of peripheral cells is caused by a defect in response to chemokine signals. Since CD45 pre-mRNA splicing cannot explain this phenotype, the identification of hnRNP L targets by RNA-Seq has shown that hnRNP L plays a role in the regulation of alternative splicing of factors involved in actin polymerization. Secondly, we studied the role of hnRNP L in hematopoiesis using knockout mice in which hnRNP L is conditionally deleted specifically in fetal liver and bone marrow hematopoietic cells. Ablation of hnRNP L reduces the number of cell lineage committed progenitors including the common lymphoid progenitors (CLPs), common myeloid and granulocyte progenitors (CMPs, GMPs) and the megakaryocyte-erythrocyte progenitors (MEPs) as well as the mature hematopoietic cells. In contrast to multipotent progenitors (MPPs) that are affected by the absence of hnRNP L, the hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) population is not reduced. In fact, HSCs from hnRNP L deleted mice demonstrate increased cell cycling. However, hnRNP L deficient HSCs express high levels of Annexin V and CD95, which suggests an increased cell death. As for the thymus, a RNA-Seq analysis of fetal livers revealed different targets of hnRNP L among gene categories related to cell death, DNA damage responses and cell adhesion that may explain the phenotype observed in the hnRNP L deficient HSCs. These results suggest that hnRNP L and alternative splicing are essential for the survival and maintenance of the differentiation potential of HSCs. HnRNP L is also crucial for the development of T cells by regulating both their migration and the splicing of CD45.

O Projeto Genoma Humano do Câncer (PGHC), financiado pela FAPESP e pelo Instituto Ludwig de Pesquisa sobre o câncer, buscou identificar os genes expressos nos tipos mais comuns de câncer no Brasil. Tal projeto conseguiu identificar aproximadamente um milhão de seqüências de genes de tumores freqüentes no Brasil. A contribuição brasileira foi maior para tumores de cabeça e pescoço, mama e cólon. Uma das iniciativas mais recentes e estimuladas pelo PGHC é o projeto Genoma Clínico, o qual visa desenvolver novas formas de diagnóstico e tratamento do câncer através do estudo de genes expressos. A partir da análise molecular de tecidos saudáveis e neoplásicos em diferentes estágios, é possível identificar marcadores de prognóstico, permitindo escolhas de terapias mais adequadas e eficientes. A proteína hnRNP K foi identificada como um desses marcadores, em neoplasias da região da cabeça e pescoço, sendo objetivo deste estudo a aplicação de técnicas de bioinformática e modelagem molecular no planejamento baseado em estrutura de candidatos a fármacos antineoplásicos que bloqueiem a atividade da proteína. A proteína hnRNP K apresenta diversas funções e é encontrada nos mais diversos compartimentos celulares, interferindo, basicamente, no sistema de expressão gênica. Essa proteína apresenta 3 domínios KH, os quais são responsáveis por sua ligação à moléculas de DNA e RNA. Modelos de boa qualidade dos domínios KH foram construídos através da estratégia de modelagem molecular por homologia estrutural. Após screening virtual em bases de dados de compostos (330.000 aproximadamente) com propriedades drug-like, 15 compostos com potencial de interação com o domínio KH3 foram selecionados. Os modos de ligação para cada um dos mesmos no sítio ligante do domínio KH3 foram sugeridos por simulações de docking e apresentaram um bom encaixe espacial com os sítios receptores virtuais calculados pelos campos de interação molecular. Simulações de dinâmica molecular foram realizadas com o intuito de avaliar a estabilidade dos compostos selecionados, que também foram avaliados quanto à presença de grupamentos toxicofóricos em sua estrutura. / The Brazilian Project Genoma Câncer (PGHC) supported by FAPESP and the Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, intended to identify the genes involved in the most common cases of cancer in Brazil. In this project about a million of gene sequences were identified. The major contribution was made in breast, colorectal and head and neck cancers. The results obtained stimulated the creation of another project, called Genoma Clínico, which intend to develop new trends in treatments and diagnosis of cancer based on the study of expressed genes. Analyzing healthy and neoplasic tissues in different stages, it is possible to identify molecular markers related to the prognosis of cancer, allowing the use of more efficient therapies. The hnRNP K protein was identified as a molecular marker in head and neck cancer, where the objective of this work lies in the application of bioinformatics and molecular modeling strategies by structure-based drug design to identify potential antineoplasic drug candicates that could act against hnRNP K protein. The hnRNP K protein is encountered in all cellular compartments and act, basically, in the gene expression pathways. Its structure is composed by three KH domains that mediate interactions with DNA and RNA molecules. High quality models of KH domains were built by homology modeling. After the virtual screening simulations performed with drug-like compound databases, containing approximately 330.000 compounds, 15 were selected as potential ligands of KH3 domain of hnRNP K. The binding modes suggested for these compounds, by docking simulations, presented a good spatial fit when compared with the virtual receptor sites calculated by molecular interaction fields. Molecular dynamics simulations were performed in order to evaluate de stability of the binding modes suggested. The potential ligands were also evaluated to identify toxicophoric features in its chemical structures.

Hepatitis delta virus (HDV) is the smallest known human RNA pathogen. It requires the human hepatitis B virus (HBV) for virion production and transmission, and is hence closely associated with HBV in natural infections. HDV RNA encodes only two viral proteins - the small and the large delta antigens. Due to its limited coding capacity, HDV needs to exploit host factors to ensure its propagation. However, few human proteins are known to interact with the HDV RNA genome. The current study has identified several host proteins interacting with an HDV-derived RNA promoter by multiple approaches: mass spectrometry of a UV-crosslinked ribonucleoprotein complex, RNA affinity chromatography, and screening of a library of purified RNA-binding proteins. Co-immunoprecipitation, both in vitro and ex vivo, confirmed the interactions of eEF1A1, p54nrb, PSF, hnRNP-L, GAPDH and ASF/SF2 with both polarities of the HDV RNA genome. In vitro transcription assays suggested a possible involvement of eEF1A1, GAPDH and PSF in HDV replication. At least three of these proteins, eEF1A1, GAPDH and ASF/SF2, have also been shown to associate with potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTVd) RNA. Because HDV’s structure and mechanism of replication share many similarities with viroids, subviral helper-independent plant pathogens, I transfected human hepatocytes with RNA derived from PSTVd. Here, I show that PSTVd RNA can replicate in human hepatocytes. I further demonstrate that a mutant of HDV, lacking the delta antigen coding region (miniHDV), can also replicate in human cells. However, both PSTVd and miniHDV require the function of the small delta antigen for successful replication. Our discovery that HDV and PSTVd RNAs associate with similar RNA-processing pathways and translation machineries during their replication provides new insight into HDV biology and its evolution.