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The purposes of the present research were to investigate the potential relationships between ego identity development, personality characteristics and social influence styles in college women. It was hypothesized that advanced identity development would be associated with more complex personality functioning and effective social influence behavior. Research subjects were classified according to identity status using The Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status. They responded to the Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Styleand engaged in a social influence task with a male or female confederate. The advanced statuses generally demonstrated more complex social-cognitive styles that allowed them to both process large amounts of stimulus information and maintain periods of private reflection of their thoughts and feelings. Conversely, the foreclosure women reported a cognitive style characterized by reduced attentional focus. In their social influence behavior, the advanced statuses employed more direct strategies and a wider repertoire of influence skills. When paired with a male confederate, the use of feminine sex-role stereotypic behavior, such as self-abasement, pleading and whining, increased with advanced identity status. The lower statuses utilized less desirable influence styles that were both placating and authoritarian. No relationship between personality characteristics and social influence style was observed in the present investigation. These findings provide tentative evidence for the relationship between advanced identity development and more complex cognitive and interpersonal styles. The potential effects of sex-role expectations in male-female influence situations were also explored.

College students were assessed as to ego identity status and perceptions of their relationships with parents during their first year away from home. Each parent was also asked to rate the relationship. There was general agreement between parents and adolescents although the data indicate that mothers and adolescents share a more similar view of their relationship than did the fathers and adolescents. The hypothesis that females would report more affection and communication with their parents than would males was partially supported. Daughters were more communicative with their mothers and were more affectionate toward both parents than were sons. Several proposed hypotheses were not supported at all. Males were not more independent nor more satisfied with their independence than the female subjects. Foreclosed youths did not visit home more frequently than the other youths, and individuals who frequently visited home were not less independent nor less affective than those who visited home infrequently. It was also hypothesized that foreclosed and identity achieved youths would report higher levels of affection, communication, and satisfaction with independence in their relationships with parents than would diffused or moratorium youths. One significant result was that foreclosed youths rated themselves as more affectionate than diffused youths toward their mothers.. Another significant finding was in the area of independence. It was hypothesized that the identity achieved and moratorium youths would be more independent from their parents than would the diffused and foreclosed youths. This hypothesis was supported by the adolescents' self-ratings and partially supported by the fathers' ratings. Overall, several sex and identity status differences were found. Only one identity status difference was found among the female subjects, while several identity status differences were found among the male subjects. Although no cause-and-effect relationships can be concluded, the results do indicate that differences in the relationships with parents do occur at the same time as identity status differences.

The relationship between conformity behavior and the four identity statuses as operationalized by Marcia was studied in 80 college students. Also, various personality characteristics were studied relative to their discernability by identity status and their relationship to conformity behavior. As sex difference was a major consideration in the study, the sample was divided into 40 males and 40 females ranging in age from 18 to 25 years. Statistical analysis indicated there were no significant differences between identity statuses relative to conformity for either males or females. In addition, very few personality characteristics were indicative of conformity for either sex. However, knowledge of personality profiles led to the correct classification into the four identity statuses for 72.5% of male subjects and 67.5% of the female subjects. These results would appear to indicate that identity and personality are positively related constructs which are not easily transferable to overt behavior regardless of sex.

Previous research suggests a link between identity status (i.e., identity exploration and identity commitment) and body image, evaluation (e.g., body satisfaction) and investment (e.g., the psychological importance one places on one's appearance). The identity statuses include diffused (neither exploration, nor commitment), foreclosed (commitment without exploration), moratorium (exploration, but no commitment), and achieved (exploration and commitment to an identity). While research demonstrates that an association exists between body image, specifically weight preoccupation, and identity development, variations in the adjustment within the identity statuses suggest that other factors may affect this relationship. One such factor is identity distress. The intended purpose of this study is to replicate the findings of Herzog (1997) who found that women in the identity statuses which have not yet committed to an identity (diffused and moratorium) had a significantly higher degree of weight preoccupation than those in the identity statuses who had made identity commitments. The present study also sought to explore whether this same relationship holds for men. It was further hypothesized that women would have less satisfaction with their bodies than men would. A sample of 53 college students with a mean age of26.45 years (S.D. = 7.36 years) completed questionnaires pertaining to identity status, identity distress, and body image. A one-way analysis of variance showed a significant difference between identity status groups on overweight preoccupation with the most preoccupied being those in the moratorium identity status, followed by achievement, diffused, and then foreclosed. However, Scheffe Post Hoc analyses indicated that the only significant difference between groups was between moratoriums and foreclosed (the two extremes). Likewise, males had a significantly higher evaluation of their appearance than women did, confirming the second hypothesis. When looking at the subscales of identity exploration and identity commitment, commitment positively correlated with appearance orientation. Exploration positively correlated with fitness orientation. The average identity distress rating positively correlated to overweight preoccupation, and negatively correlated to appearance evaluation and body areas satisfaction. In regards to a DSM-IV diagnosis for identity problem, 18.9% of the sample qualified. Scores for those who met for identity problem diagnosis were significantly lower in health orientation and body areas satisfaction. The main hypothesis of this paper was that identity variables would be a significant predictor of body image. To test this hypothesis, several multiple regression analyses were calculated with the demographic variables of sex and age entered in the first step, identity status entered in the second step, and average identity distress rating entered on the third step, with each of the body image subscale scores as the dependent variable. Results indicated that the overall model was significant for appearance evaluation, fitness orientation, body areas satisfaction, and overweight preoccupation. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Although there has been progress in trying to decrease the use of cigarette smoking, a new method of smoking has evolved which is rapidly increasing, namely vaping. Adolescents who participate in smoking are more likely to increase smoking frequency if they believed that it is self-defining (“I smoke cigarettes” versus “I am a smoker”). While there has been evidence to support the claim that internal motives for smoking are correlated with smoker identity development, there has been none, to our knowledge, found for vaping identity. Due to the similarities of smoking and vaping, it is important to discover whether those who vape also have an identity similar to those who smoke. In other words, with vaping being a new technology, do users identify themselves as “I am a vaper” or “I vape e-cigarettes”? The way in which users identify themselves may have important implications for intervention efforts. Further, smoking is a type of substance abuse, and substance abuse, primarily alcohol, has been linked to identity status, identity distress, and psychopathology. Smoking has been linked to alcohol use and abuse, but it is unclear if smoking is related to similar identity and adjustment variables, particularly internalizing symptoms, in the same way as alcohol use. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore the associations between smoking, vaping, identity, and psychopathology. Using college student participants (N = 303) who completed anonymous online surveys for course credit, four hypotheses were tested, but none was confirmed. Possible reasons for the lack of significant findings are discussed. Despite the lack of findings in regard to the relationship among the study variables, the new concept and measure of vaping identity proposed in this thesis appear to be a potentially valid and useful avenue for future research.

The adolescent years are typically marked by the exploration of different roles and lifestyles with experience culminating into a crystallized sense of self (Chae, 2001). According to de Man, Harvey, Ward and Benoit (2008) adolescents who have achieved ego identity generally have higher levels of self-esteem and tend to be more decisive, self-directed, good at problem solving and able to cope with changing environmental demands. Currently there is a lack of identity research in South Africa that encompasses gender, self-esteem and academic achievement. The purpose of this research study sets about to fill such a gap. This study attempted to investigate the differences in males and females’ identity processing style in relation to academic achievement and self-esteem. A sample of 428 first year psychology students at a well known South African university participated in this study. A biographical questionnaire, the Identity Style Inventory (ISI-3), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES) and 2009 June examination results were utilized. Findings of the study revealed no significant differences in males and females’ identity processing style in relation to academic achievement and self-esteem. There was however significant difference between the three identity processing styles, in favour of the Informational group on academic achievement. A significant difference was found between the gender groups only on the Normative variable in favour of the females. Implications for further theory and practice and recommendations for future research are provided.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Psychology)) -- University of Limpopo, 2012 / The identity status paradigm (ISP) is probably the most common theoretical model used to study identity development. It originates from Erikson’s (1950/1977) psychosocial theory, which, in turn, is historically rooted in the psychoanalytic perspective. The ISP postulates predictable relationships between each of the identity status categories and various intrapersonal and contextual variables. The applicability of the ISP in the South African context is tested in this study. A student sample was drawn from a predominantly African university, and was assessed for identity development over a period of three consecutive years (Ns = 394, 96 & 60, for years one, two and three, in that order). Participants were initially classified into the four identity status categories of Achievement, Moratorium, Foreclosure and Diffusion. The impact of gender and age on identity status development was investigated. The association between defenses and the identity statuses was also determined. Thereafter, identity statuses, in conjunction with defenses, narcissism, and parental attachment, were related to the ego strengths of Fidelity and Love. The results suggest that generally there is no relationship between the sets of variables in this particular sample. The results are discussed in relation to existing literature, and the issue of the appropriateness of the theory and/or the measures in the present sample is raised. Key terms: defense, ego strength, identity status, narcissism, parental attachment / the Norwegian Programme for Development, Research and Education (NUFU),

Race-related stress has been found to impact the mental health of African Americans in literature. Three manuscripts were developed for this dissertation. The first is a critical literature review identifying the multiple pathways by which racism can affect mental health, and the current research addressing this problem is presented. Second, a quantitative study looking at what type of coping mechanisms African Americans use when dealing with race-related stress and how racial identity statuses impact these coping mechanisms?; The third manuscript addresses the research question, among the identified coping mechanisms, is there a relationship with psychological distress? The first manuscript is a critical literature review which discusses racism, race-related stress, and coping resources. The aim of the paper is to identify the multiple pathways by which racism can affect mental health and the current research addressing this problem. Initially, views of racism and race-related stress will be identified; theories for use of stress will be examined, and how racial identity status influences the perception of racism. In addition, individual strategies for coping with racism will be discussed, as well as major approaches to coping that have received sufficient research with regard to their effectiveness for mental and physical outcomes. The purpose of the first quantitative study was to examine the relationships among race-related stress, racial identity status, and coping resources in African Americans in a sample of 294 African American adults. Results indicated that avoidance coping and seeking social support predicted higher levels of race-related stress. Problem solving coping did not predict race-related stress. In addition, racial identity status (pre-encounter and immersion-emersion) predicted avoidance coping where racial identity status (internalization) predicted more problem solving coping behavior. The findings emphasize the need to recognize how racial identity status influence styles of coping in African Americans. Implications for mental health providers are discussed. The purpose of the second study was to examine the relationships between race-related stress, coping resources, and mental health in African Americans in a sample of 294 African American adults. Results indicated they were a predictor of psychological distress and well-being in African Americans. Specifically, the avoidance coping mechanism led to participants in the study experiencing more psychological distress when using this coping resource. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the results, which confirmed our hypothesis that mal-adaptive coping strategies predicted psychological distress. The findings emphasize the need to recognize how coping styles influence mental health in African Americans. Implications for mental health providers are discussed.

Young adulthood is a crucial period for identity development, and an unclear sense of identity has been associated with deleterious psychological and social outcomes (Kroger & Marcia, 2011). Young adults have also identified self-sufficiency, including financial independence, as an essential aspect associated with attaining adulthood (Arnett, 2000). However, current realities such as global economic uncertainty and a shift toward greater personal responsibility for financial security may threaten the successful attainment of these essential goals (Furstenberg, Rumbaut, & Settersten, 2005). Hence, I explored identity formation (Erikson, 1950, 1968) in the domain of finance. Four socialization factors (perceived parental SES, parental financial communication, formal financial education, and high school work experience) and three beliefs (attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control) were used to predict financial identity (achievement, foreclosure, moratorium, and diffusion) in a sample of college students (N = 2,098) who were surveyed at two time points approximately 2.5 years apart. Four models were tested using structural equation modeling (SEM). First, using crossectional data, I tested the extent to which socialization factors and financial beliefs predicted financial identity. I found support for 79% of the hypothesized associations between the variables. Second, using crossectional data, I examined the degree to which financial beliefs mediated the association between socialization factors and financial identity. Findings indicated that financial beliefs partially mediated the association between parental financial communication and financial identity. Third, using longitudinal data, Time 1 (T1) socialization factors and T1 beliefs were used to predict Time 2 (T2) financial identity. As expected, T1 financial identity was the most robust predictor of T2 financial identity. After controlling for T1 financial identity, T1 variables were most predictive of changes in T2 foreclosure: Increases in foreclosure were predicted by perceived parental SES, parental communication, formal education, and subjective norms. Finally, T1 financial beliefs were allowed to mediate the association between T1 socialization factors and T2 financial identity. I found no evidence of mediation using longitudinal data. Findings from this study suggest that identity formation within the financial domain is consistent with identity formation in other recognized identity domains.