O presente trabalho de Doutorado tem como objetivo investigar a influência de materiais lamelares prístinos e modificados e a influência de diferentes rotas sintéticas nas propriedades físico-químicas do amido termoplástico, utilizando glicerol como plastificante. Para tanto, empregou-se para a produção dos materiais híbridos uma argila sintética da família das hectoritas (Laponita RD) na forma prístina e também modificada com íons berberine e carnosina, além de um hidróxido duplo lamelar (HDL) constituído por íons Zn2+/Al3+ intercalado com carboximetilcelulose (CMC). O amido e o material lamelar foram combinados, utilizando as metodologias de casting e extrusão, nas concentrações de 2,5 e 5,0 % (m/m) de argila ou HDL com relação ao polissacarídeo. Já quantidade de plastificante empregada foi variável, dependendo da rota de preparação empregada, sendo de aproximadamente 20 % (m/m) via casting e 30 % (m/m) via extrusão com relação ao amido. Conforme mostram os difratogramas de raios X dos filmes obtidos pelo método casting, todos os filmes contendo argila em sua composição exibem um sinal largo de difração na região de baixo ângulo de 2θ, embora pouco intenso, indica a existência de certa quantidade de nanocompósito do tipo intercalado. Já para os materiais obtidos via extrusão, os sinais de difração em baixo ângulo são consideravelmente alargados e muito pouco intensos. A propriedade térmica do amido termoplástico foi piorada em todos os casos estudados nos materiais contendo argila ou HDL em sua composição. A presença de carga inorgânica na formulação dos materiais híbridos preparados não retardou o processo de decomposição não-oxidativo do amido. A presença de uma maior quantidade de glicerol nos materiais obtidos por extrusão resultou em uma antecipação ainda maior no principal evento de perda de massa, em comparação com os mesmos materiais obtidos via casting. Devido à alta característica hidrofílica do amido, materiais lamelares intercalados com espécies que possuem maior caráter hidrofílico, como a Laponita prístina (contendo apenas íons Na+) e a carnosina mostraram uma melhor dispersão pela matriz polimérica, através da análise por técnicas de microscopia. Adicionalmente, observou-se uma melhor homogeneidade de distribuição da fase lamelar na fase polimérica nos filmes obtidos por casting em comparação com os materiais obtidos por extrusão. Os resultados mecânicos de todos os materiais híbridos analisados mostram tendências pouco conclusivas com relação ao amido termoplástico. Em geral, observa-se uma melhora muito sutil na máxima resistência a tração com a presença de material lamelar na composição dos materiais testados, além de uma diminuição na elongação máxima. Da mesma forma, a permeabilidade a gases dos filmes contendo argila ou HDL em sua composição mostrou resultados pouco conclusivos com relação ao amido termoplástico, geralmente exibindo uma redução modesta na permeabilidade. A investigação do perfil de biodegradação dos materiais contendo fase lamelar em sua composição mostrou que apenas a amostra contendo Laponita modificada com carnosina obtida por extrusão foi capaz de retardar significativamente a conversão do carbono das cadeias poliméricas em CO2, com relação ao amido termoplástico. / This present Thesis aimed to investigate the influence of pristine and modified layered materials and the influence of different preparation routes on the physicochemical properties of thermoplastic starch, using glycerol as plasticizer. To reach this goal, it was used to produce hybrid materials a synthetic clay belonging to the hectorite family (Laponite RD) in both pristine form and modified with berberine and carnosine ions and also a layered double hydroxide (LDH) comprised of Zn2+/Al3+ ions intercalated with carboxymethylcellulose (CMC). Both starch and the layered material were combined using casting and extrusion methodologies, using concentrations of 2.5 and 5.0 % (w/w) of clay or LDH relative to starch. The amount of plasticizer utilized was variable, depending on the preparation route employed. It was used approximately 20 % (w/w) of glycerol on casting route and 30 % (w/w) on extrusion route relative to starch. According to X ray diffractograms of the films obtained by casting route, all hybrid films that contain clay in their composition exhibit a large diffraction signal at low 2θ angle values, albeit its low intensity, indicates the existence of a certain contribuition of a intercalated nanocomposite. On the other hand, the hybrid materials obtained through extrusion method, these low angle diffraction signals are very broad and possess very low intensity. The thermal properties of thermoplastic starch were worsened in all studied cases after combined with clay or LDH. The presence of inorganic filler on the formulation of hybrid materials does not postpone the beginning of the non-oxidative decomposition process of starch. A higher amount of glycerol on the final materials obtained through extrusion resulted in an even greater anticipation on the main mass loss event in comparison to the analogous materials obtained using casting technique. Due to the high hydrophilic nature of starch, layered materials intercalated with ionic species that show higher hydrophilicity such as pristine Laponite (containing solely Na+ ions) and carnosine exhibited better dispersion through the polymer matrix, after being analyzed with microscopic techniques. Additionaly, it was observed a higher homogeneity of distribution of the layered phase over the polymer phase on the films obtained through casting in comparison to the materials obtained through extrusion. The tensile tests of all analyzed hybrid materials show a poorly conclusive trend in comparison to thermoplastic starch. In general, it was observed a subtle improvement on the maximum tensile strength of the materials containing layered material in their composition and also a decrease in the maximum elongation. In a same trend, gas permeability of the films was poorly conclusive in comparison to thermoplastic starch, generally resulting in a subtle reduction of permeability values. The investigation of biodegradation profile of the materials containing inorganic filler show that only Laponite modified with carnosine ions was able to postpone significatively the conversion of carbon from the polymer chains to CO2 in comparison to thermoplastic starch.

A intercalação de espécies com atividade farmacológica em Hidróxidos Duplos Lamelares (HDLs) vem sendo explorada com uma maior freqüência não apenas pelo fato da matriz ser biocompatível, mas também por outros efeitos reportados em estudos recentes como: (i) possível liberação sustentada da droga mediada por alterações no pH, (ii) aumento da solubilidade de substâncias pouco solúveis em água, (iii) aumento da estabilidade química de substâncias frente à luz, ao calor, à umidade, ao oxigênio molecular etc. O principal objetivo deste trabalho é a intercalação de substâncias de interesse medicinal (em suas formas aniônicas) como a pravastatina, Prav (ação anti-hiperlipidêmica) e os antioxidantes ácidos coumárico, Cou, e lipóico, Lip, em HDLs de magnésio-alumínio e zinco-alumínio através da coprecipitação, utilizando diferentes condições experimentais (pH, tratamento pós-síntese e relação molar ânion/Al3+). As amostras sólidas foram caracterizadas por análise elementar (CHN e metais), difratometria de raios X, métodos espectroscópicos (vibracional no infravermelho, Raman e ressonância magnética nuclear de 13C no estado sólido), análise térmica, microscopia eletrônica de varredura, medidas de tamanho de partícula e de potencial Zeta. A ação farmacológica dos HDLs de composição Mg2Al foi investigada através do teste biológico com o corante Sulforodamina B na linhagem celular de melanoma A-375. A utilização de diferentes proporções molares Pravastatina/Al3+ (1, 2 e 3) não alterou significativamente a quantidade de substância orgânica presente no material. O HDL de composição lamelar Zn2+/Al3+ apresentou maior cristalinidade e maior quantidade de orgânico (52 % m/m) que a matriz Mg2+/Al3+ (32 % m/m). A Pravastatina forma uma bicamada na região interlamelar. Os valores de tamanho médio de partícula e do potencial Zeta encontrado para o material Mg2Al1Prav (razão molar Prav/Al3+= 1) são 126 nm e + 22,9 mV, respectivamente. A Pravastatina e o material de Mg2Al1Prav diminuíram o crescimento celular da linhagem A-375 em até 20 % após tratamento. A composição dos HDLs intercalados com íons coumarato é dependente da razão molar Cou/Al3+ empregada na síntese. Observou-se novamente que o emprego da composição lamelar Zn2+/Al3+ contribui para a obtenção de material com maior cristalinidade e quantidade de orgânico intercalado (36 % m/m) comparado ao análogo de Mg2+/Al3+ (32 % m/m). Os ânions orgânicos na forma bivalente, constatados pelos resultados obtidos no espectro Raman, assumem um arranjo de monocamada com inclinação do esqueleto carbônico em relação às lamelas. Dados de análise elementar e análise térmica sugerem que o íon orgânico está enxertado/coordenado às lamelas do HDL. A suspensão aquosa do material Zn2Al3Cou apresenta estabilidade moderada frente à aglomeração (potencial Zeta igual a + 39,6 mV) e tamanho médio de partícula de 226 nm. No caso dos HDLs-Lip, observou-se que o excesso de íons lipoato na síntese, assim como o tempo de agitação pós-síntese , não alterou a cristalinidade e a quantidade de orgânico (39 % m/m) no material. Os ânions orgânicos devem se organizar na forma de uma bicamada interdigitada na região interlamelar. A suspensão aquosa do material Mg2Al1Lip apresenta estabilidade moderada frente à aglomeração (potencial Zeta igual a + 34,3 mV) e tamanho médio de partícula de 110 nm. / The intercalation of species with pharmacological activity in Layered Double Hydroxide (LDHs) has been explored frequently not only because it is biocompatible, but also by others effects as reported in recent studies: (i) sustained release of the drug by changes in pH, (ii) increasing the solubility of poorly water soluble substances, (iii) increase of the chemical stability of substance against light, heat, moisture, molecular oxygen etc. The main goal of this work is the intercalation of substances of therapeutic interest (in their anionic forms) as Pravastatin, Prav (antihyperlipidemic), and the antioxidants coumaric acid, Cou, and lipoic acid, Lip, in LDHs of magnesium-aluminum and zinc-aluminum by coprecipitation using different experimental conditions (pH, post-synthesis treatment and molar ratio anion/Al3+). Solid samples were characterized by elemental analysis (CHN and metals), X-ray diffraction, spectroscopic methods (Vibrational Infrared, Raman and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance of 13C in solid state), thermal analysis, scanning electron microscopy, measurements of particle size and Zeta potential. The pharmacological activity of LDHs of Mg2Al composition was investigated by the biological assay with the dye Sulforhodamine B in the melanoma cell line A-375. The usage of different molar ratio Pravastatin/Al3+ (1, 2 and 3) did not significantly alter the amount of organic substance present in the inorganic carrier. The LDH of composition Zn2+/Al3+ promoted an increase in the crystallinity of the material and in the amount of organic (52 % w/w) compared to the Mg2+/Al3+ material (32 % w/w). Pravastatin forms a bilayer into the interlayer region. The mean particle size and Zeta potential of the Mg2Al1Prav (molar ratio Prav- /Al3+= 1) are 126 nm and + 22.9 mV, respectively. The Pravastatin and the material Mg2Al1Prav decreased cell growth of strain A-375 melanoma by 20 % after treatment. The composition of the LDH intercalated with coumarate ions is dependent of the molar ratio anion/Al3+ used in the synthesis. The composition Zn2+/Al3+ promoted an increase in the crystallinity and amount of the organic (36 % w/w) compared to Mg2+/Al3+ material (32 % w/w). The organic divalent anions, visualized by the Raman spectra results, assume a monolayer arrangement with the inclination of the carboxylate group related to the layer. Elemental and thermal analysis suggest the grafting/coordination of the organic ions into the layers of LDH. The aqueous suspension of the Zn2Al3Cou shows moderate stability against agglomeration (Zeta potential value + 39.6 mV) and particle size of 226 nm. In the case of LDHs-Lip, it was observed that excess of lipoate ions from the synthesis, as well as, the stirring time pos-synthesis did not alter the crystallinity and the organic amount (39 % w/w) material. The organic anions are organized in an interdigitated bilayer into the interlayer region. The aqueous suspension of the Mg2Al1Lip material shows moderate stability against the agglomeration (zeta potential value equal to + 34.3 mV) and a particle size of about 110 nm.

Mit der Entwicklung der Weltwirtschaft steigt der Energieverbrauch weiterhin stark an. Darüber hinaus reduzieren sich die nicht erneuerbaren Energiequellen, wie Öl, Erdgas und Kohle und die Umweltverschmutzung wird größer. Daher soll die Energienutzung in eine neue, erneuerbare und umweltfreundliche Richtung gehen. Die Arbeit hat zum Ziel innovative, wässrige Akkumulatoren zu entwickeln. Im Allgemeinen können wässrige Akkumulatoren gemäß der Elektrolyte in drei verschiedenen Kategorien eingeteilt werden. Es gibt feste, organische und wässrige Elektrolyte einschließlich saurer, alkalischer und neutraler. In Bezug auf metallbasierte negative Elektroden können sie auch als Lithiumbatterie, Natriumbatterie sowie Magnesiumbatterie etc. bezeichnet werden. Daher werden im ersten Kapitel einige typische Akkumulatoren, wie die Lithiumionenbatterien, Daniell-Element, Weston-Zelle, Nickel-Cadmium-Batterie und Bleibatterie vorgestellt. Im Vergleich zu organischen Elektrolyten wurden wässrige Akkumulatoren aufgrund ihrer billigen, leichten und sicheren Bauweise in den letzten Jahren umfassend untersucht. Zusätzlich dazu ist die ionische Leitfähigkeit von wässrigen Elektrolyten um zwei Größenordnungen höher als die von organischen Elektrolyten. Dies garantiert eine hohe Entladungsrate für wässrige wiederaufladbare Batterien. Somit bieten wiederaufladbare Batterien potentielle Anwendungen in der Energiespeicherung und -umwandlung. Allerdings verursachen starke Säuren oder Basen, die als Elektrolyte für sekundäre Batterien eingesetzt werden, eine starke Korrosion. Somit wären neutrale wässrige Elektrolyten (oder Elektrolytlösungen) mit einem pH-Wert in der Nähe von sieben, wie zum Beispiel schwach basisch oder sauer, die beste Wahl für wässrige Akkumulatoren. Aktive Elektrodenmaterialien der Batterien, die hochgiftige Schwermetalle wie Blei, Quecksilber und Cadmium enthalten, belasten die Umwelt. Um die Menge an Schwermetallen und Säure (oder Basen) zu verringern, sowie die spezifische Kapazität von Batterien zu erhöhen, untersucht diese Dissertation vor allem die elektrochemische Leistung der PbSO4/0,5M Li2SO4/LiMn2O4-Zelle, der Cd/0,5M Li2SO4+10mM Cd(Ac)2/LiCoO2-Zelle und von C/Cu/CNT-Gemischen als negative Materialien in 0,5 M K2CO3–Elektrolyt-Halbzellen. Die zugehörigen experimentellen Ergebnisse werden wie folgt zusammengefaßt: Im Kapitel 3 wurde eine säurefreie Bleibatterie auf Basis des LiMn2O4-Spinells als positive Elektrode, PbSO4 als negativer Elektrode und der wässrigen Lösung von 0,5 M Li2SO4 als Elektrolyt zusammengesetzt. Die spezifische Kapazität auf Basis von LiMn2O4 beträgt 128 mA•h•g-1 und die durchschnittliche Entladungsspannung beträgt 1,3 V. Die berechnete Energiedichte ist 68 W•h•kg-1, bezogen auf die praktischen Kapazitäten der beiden Elektroden. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die positive Elektrode der Bleibatterie (PbO2) vollständig durch umweltfreundliches und billiges LiMn2O4 ersetzt werden kann, wodurch 50 % des Bleis eingespart werden können. Außerdem wird Schwefelsäure nicht benötigt. Kapitel 4 zeigt eine wässrige wiederaufladbare Lithiumionenbatterie, die metallisches Cadmium als negative Elektrode, LiCoO2-Nanopartikel als positive Elektrode und eine wässrige, neutrale Lösung von 0,5 M Li2SO4 und 10 mM Cd(Ac)2 als Elektrolyt enthält. Die durchschnittliche Entladungsspannung beträgt 1,2 V und die spezifische Entladungskapazität beträgt 107 mA•h•g-1 auf Basis von LiCoO2. Die berechnete Energiedichte beträgt 72 W•h•kg-1, bezogen auf die praktischen Kapazitäten der beiden Elektroden. Wie bereits oben beschrieben demonstrieren die Ergebnisse, dass 100 % von Quecksilber und der alkalischen Elektrolyt im Vergleich zur Weston-Zelle bzw. der Ni-Cd-Batterie, eingespart werden können. Kapitel 5 zeigt einen Verbundwerkstoff von Kupfer, das auf der Oberfläche von CNTs durch eine Redoxreaktion zwischen Kupferacetat und Ethylenglykol, zur Verwendung als negative Elektrode bei hohen Strömen in der Energiespeicherung, hergestellt wurde. Der so hergestellte C/Cu/CNT-Verbundwerkstoff zeigt ein besseres Geschwindigkeitsverhalten und eine höhere Kapazität ebenso wie eine exzellente Zyklusstabilität in wässrigen 0,5 M K2CO3-Lösungen im Vergleich zu einfachem Kupfer. Die Kohlenstoffbeschichtung kann die Auflösung von Kupfercarbonatkomplexen verhindern, die Elektrodenleitfähigkeit erhöhen und die Oberflächenchemie des aktiven Materials verbessern. / With the economic development of the world, energy consumption continues to rise sharply. Moreover, non-renewable energy sources including fossil oil, natural gas and coal are declining gradually and environmental pollution is becoming more severe. Hence, energy usage should go into a new direction of development that is renewable and environmental-friendly. This thesis aims to explore innovative aqueous rechargeable batteries. Generally, rechargeable batteries could be classified into three categories according to the different electrolytes. There are solid electrolytes, organic electrolytes and aqueous electrolytes including acidic, alkaline and neutral. In terms of metal-based negative electrodes, they also could be named lithium battery, sodium battery as well as magnesium battery etc. Therefore, some typical rechargeable batteries are introduced in Chapter 1, such as lithium ion batteries, Daniell-type cell, Weston cell, Ni-Cd battery and lead-acid battery. Compared to organic electrolytes, aqueous rechargeable batteries have been investigated broadly in recent years because they are inexpensive, easy to construct and safe. Additionally, the ionic conductivity of aqueous electrolytes is higher than that of organic electrolytes by about two orders of magnitude. Furthermore, it ensures high rate capability for aqueous rechargeable battery. Consequently, aqueous rechargeable batteries present potential applications in energy storage and conversion. However, strong acid or alkaline, which is used as the electrolyte for secondary batteries, will cause serious corrosion. Thus, neutral aqueous electrolyte (or pH value of electrolyte solution close to 7 such as weak alkaline and acid) would be the best choice for aqueous rechargeable battery. In addition, the electrode active materials of batteries containing highly toxic heavy metals such as Pb, Hg and Cd, pollute the environment. As a result, in order to reduce the amount of heavy metals and acid (or alkaline) as well as increase the specific capacity of batteries, this dissertation mainly studies the electrochemical performance of PbSO4/0.5M Li2SO4/LiMn2O4 full battery, Cd/0.5M Li2SO4+10 mM Cd(Ac)2/LiCoO2 full battery and C/Cu/CNT composites as negative material in 0.5 M K2CO3 electrolyte as half cell. The related experimental results are as follows: In Chapter 3, an acid-free lead battery was assembled based on spinel LiMn2O4 as the positive electrode, PbSO4 as the negative electrode, and 0.5 M Li2SO4 aqueous solution as the electrolyte. Its specific capacity based on the LiMn2O4 is 128 mA•h•g-1 and the average discharge voltage is 1.3 V. The calculated energy density is 68 W•h•kg-1 based on the practical capacities of the two electrodes. These results show that the positive electrode of the lead acid battery (PbO2) can be totally replaced by the environmentally friendly and cheap LiMn2O4, which implies that 50 % of Pb can be saved. In addition, H2SO4 is not needed. Chapter 4 shows an aqueous rechargeable lithium ion battery using metallic Cd as the negative electrode, LiCoO2 nanoparticles as the positive electrode, and an aqueous neutral solution of 0.5 M Li2SO4 and 10 mM Cd(Ac)2 as the electrolyte. Its average discharge voltage is 1.2 V and the specific discharge capacity is 107 mA•h•g-1 based on the LiCoO2 . In addition, the calculated energy density based on the capacities of the electrodes is 72 W•h•kg-1. As described above, the results demonstrate that 100 % of Hg and alkaline electrolyte can be saved compared with the Weston cell and the Ni-Cd battery, respectively. The work reported in Chapter 5 deals with a composite of copper grown on the surface of CNTs as prepared by a redox reaction between copper acetate and ethylene glycol for use as negative electrode at high currents in energy storage. The as-prepared C/Cu/CNTs composite exhibits better rate behavior and higher capacity as well as excellent cycling stability in aqueous 0.5 M K2CO3 solution compared to the unsupported copper. The carbon coating can effectively prevent the dissolution of copper carbonate complexes, increase the electrode conductivity, improve the surface chemistry of the active material and protect the electrode from direct contact with electrolyte solution.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Aqueous ion-intercalation batteries (AIB’s) have the potential to provide both high power for hybrid-electric transport, and low cost bulk energy storage for electric grid supply. However, a major setback to AIB development is the instability of suitable ionintercalation anode material in aqueous electrolyte. To counter this problem, the use of activated carbon (AC) (a supercapacitor anode) paired against the low cost ionintercalation cathode spinel LiMn2O4 (LMO) provides a stable alternative. This thesis comprises two novel areas of investigation concerning: (1) the development of the AC/LMO cell for high power applications, and (2) the introduction of PbSO4 as a high capacity alternative anode material paired against LMO for low cost bulk energy storage. The study on AC/LMO explores the electrode combination’s practical specific energy and power capability at high P/E (power to energy ratio) of 50:1 suitable for hybrid electric vehicle batteries. To study the relationship between electrode material loading density, active material performance, and current collector mass contribution, a specially designed cell was constructed for galvanic cycling of different thicknesses of electrode. Between a loading density range of 25 – 100 mg, ~50 mg of total active material between two 1 cm2 current collectors produced the highest 50:1 P/E ratio values of 4 Wh/kg and 200 W/kg, constituting a 4-fold reduction of the active material values of thin films at 50:1 P/E. The cycling potentials of the individual electrodes revealed that doublings of electrode film loading density increased the LMO electrode’s polarization and voltage drop to similar levels as doublings in applied current density. However, by increasing the charging voltage from 1.8 V to 2.2 V, 6 Wh/kg and 300 W/kg was obtainable with minimal loss of energy efficiency. Finally a large-format cell of a calculated 3 Ah capacity at 50:1 P/E was constructed and tested. The cell produced ~60% of the anticipated capacity due to a suspected high level of resistance in the electrode contact points. The overall conclusion to the study was that AC/LMO holds promise for high power applications, and that future use of higher rate capability forms of LMO offers a promising avenue for further research. v The second part of this thesis presents the development of a novel cell chemistry, PbSO4/LMO, that has yet to be reported elsewhere in existing literature. The cell uses aqueous pH 7, 1 M, Li2SO4 electrolyte, and forms an electrode coupling where the PbSO4 anode charge/discharge is analogous to that in Pb-acid batteries. The average discharge voltage of the cell was 1.4 V and formed a flat charge/discharge plateau. The use of a low cost carbon coating method to encapsulate PbSO4 microparticles had a marked improvement on cell performance, and compared to uncoated PbSO4 improved both rate capability and specific capacity of the material. The active materials of the carbon-coated PbSO4/LMO cell produced a specific energy 51.1 Wh/kg, which, if a 65% yield is possible for a practical cell format, equals 38.4 Wh/kg, which is 15 Wh/kg higher than AC/LMO bulk storage cells at 23 Wh/kg, but lower than Pb-acid batteries at ~25-50 Wh/kg. Interestingly, the specific capacity of PbSO4 was 76 mAh/g compared to 100 mAh/g in Pb-acid cells. The predicted cost of the cell, providing a 65% value of the active material specific energy for a practical cell can be realized, is on par with Pb-acid battery technology and, importantly, uses 2.3 × less Pb/kWh. The cycling stability achieved thus far is promising, but will require testing over comparable cycle life periods to commercial batteries, which could be anywhere between 5 – 15 years.

This document will present the work done on BN under high pressure conditions, both at room temperatures and at high temperatures under laser heating conditions. These experiments are performed to identify possible phase transitions within the BN system and characterize the materials present under the given conditions using a mixture of X-ray diffraction and Raman and infrared spectroscopies are employed. A review of the background and motivations for studies of BN under extreme conditions, as well as the techniques employed, is given as an introduction. A phase transition from hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) to wurtzite boron nitride (wBN) is observed beginning at 9 GPa and room temperature, with coexistence of the two phases until 14 GPa for hydrostatic conditions and to above 20 GPa for non-hydrostatic conditions. This transition is partially reversible below 2 GPa. The formed wBN has a high concentration of defects. For recovered samples, defects couple with the 532.18 nm excitation laser producing a heating effect, observed as a Raman downshift with increasing laser power. The bulk modulus B0 and pressure derivative of the bulk modulus B0′ of hBN are estimated to be 30.6 ± 0.5 GPa and 8.7 ± 0.7, respectively. The bulk modulus of wBN is estimated to be 392 ± 5 GPa, leading to a Vickers hardness of 68 ± 1 GPa. Extra diffraction lines are observed for hBN samples loaded with N2, indicating a potential new structure arising from a reaction of N2 with hBN, but Raman spectroscopy fails to corroborate this finding. The crystallinity of the hBN samples and the choice of pressure transmitting medium are shown to have little to no effect on the estimated physical properties of hBN. Laser heating is performed on hBN with various sample assemblies. The effectiveness of different assemblies is discussed. NaCl is used as a pressure and temperature gauge local to the X-ray probe to contrast the stationary ruby pressure gauge and the non-local black body temperature measurement. A large contrast between the two temperature measurements yields doubt that the intended temperatures of around 2000 K are produced in the sample. Observation of the proposed high-pressure high-temperature transition to body-centered tetragonal BN or intercalated BN cannot be confirmed, likely due to insufficient heating. The prospects for studying Li-BN intercalation compounds under extreme conditions is discussed. An initial experiment on the system studied with X-ray diffraction is unable to confirm heating of the material nor the presence of intercalation compounds.

Electrochromic devices are based on the intercalation processes to the active layer mostly WO3. The optical properties of active layer are changed by intercalation ions from the electrolyte. For that purpose are used Li ions. The mass of thin layer can be observed by the QCM method. This method is based on the changes of the resonance frequency of a quartz crystal resonator. The investigated substance is deposited on the surface of the resonator. Various metals (Pt, Au, Ag) and their compounds should be plated on the resonator. Most frequently, the resonators for the frequency 5,0 MHz are used. This frequency change is used for the detection of chemical changes of the electrode surface and is very sensitive.

The dissertation thesis deals with electrode materials and components for lithium-ion power sources. The thesis works with two different kinds of materials, concretely nanostructured Li4Ti5O12 with spinel basis and LiCoO2 with layered structure. The electrochemical properties, structure and element analysis and utilization possibilities in electrochemical industry of new technological electrode material Li4Ti5O12 were investigated. The influences of admixtures and electrolytes on characteristics of electrode materials with aforesaid active masses were also examined. Low cost price, environmental safety and obtained results of electrochemical measurements and structure analysis refer to wide possibilities of usage electrode material Li4Ti5O12 in the field of electrochemistry.

Hlavním cílem této práce je charakterizace vzorků titanátů, jako materiálů pro sodíko-iontové (Na-ion) akumulátory. Syntéza některých vzorků je součástí této práce. Charakterizace je zaměřena na elektrochemické vlastnosti, složení a morfologii použitých materiálů. První část se zabývá lithium-iontovými (Li-ion) akumulátory. Byly vybrány, protože jsou ve vědeckých článcích dobře popsány a základní funkční princip je aplikovatelný také na Na-ion akumulátory. Materiály používáné pro katody, anody a elektrolyty následují po krátké části shrnující parametry a konstrukci Li-ion akumulátorů. Následující kapitola je zaměřena na sodíko-iontové akumulátory. Srovnání sodíku a lithia je následováno materiály používanými pro elektrody a elektrolyty (s důrazem na anodové materiály). Třetí část popisuje analytické metody použité pro charakterizaci elektrod a materiálů. Jedná se o elektrochemickou charakterizaci (cyklická voltametrie a galvanostatické cyklování s potenciálovým omezením), morfologii (rastrovací elektronová mikroskopie) a složení (X-ray difrakční spektroskopie). Poslední dvě kapitoly obsahují syntézu a charakterizaci sodného titanátu a charakterizaci dvou vzorků TiO2. Výsledky této práce jsou shrnuty v závěru.

Les oxydes de métaux de transition lamellaires peuvent servir de catalyseurs pour la conversion de la biomasse, mais leur développement nécessite une meilleure compréhension de leurs propriétés. En conséquence, plusieurs matériaux lamellaires, tels que HNbMoO6, HNbWO6, H2W2O7 et H2WO4, ainsi qu'un nouveau type d'oxydes en couches basés sur Nb et W et caractérisés par des phases d'Aurivillius “en escalier” ont été largement caractérisés notamment par spectroscopie DRX et spectroscopie Raman. La possibilité de convertir les solides précurseurs au lithium ou bismuth en phases protonées a été étudiée. Ces oxydes ont la spécificité d'intercaler des molécules entre les couches, ce qui peut contribuer à l’activité catalytique en phase liquide. Pour identifier les rôles respectifs de l’intercalation et des propriétés de surface comme l’acidité, les matériaux ont été caractérisés en phase liquide par spectroscopie Raman en utilisant des bases organiques telles que les n-alkylamines (butylamine et octylamine) et la pyridine. L'intercalation avec des réactifs possibles, les n-alcools et le 2,5-hexanediol, a également été étudiée. L'activité catalytique de ces oxydes lamellaires a été déterminée grâce à une nouvelle réaction: la cyclo-déshdrataion du 2,5-hexanediol en 2,5-diméthyltétrahydrofurane. HNbMoO6 s’est avéré le catalyseur le plus actif, comparé à des catalyseurs acides conventionnels ou aux autres matériaux lamellaires. L’acidité et la capacité d’intercalation de ces divers matériaux lamellaires ont été comparées pour comprendre les différences observées pour l’activité catalytique. / Layered transition metal oxides have a potential as catalysts for biomass conversions, but their development necessitates a better understanding of their properties. Consequently, several layered materials such as HNbMoO6, HNbWO6, H2W2O7 and H2WO4 as well as new types of layered oxides based on Nb and W and characterized by a “stair-like” Aurivillius phases were extensively characterized notably by XRD and Raman spectroscopy. The possibility to convert the as-synthesised lithium or bismuth precursors to protonated phases was also thoroughly evaluated. Layered oxides have the specificity to intercalate molecules within their interlayer regions, which may be a key feature to catalytic activity for reactions in the liquid phase. In order to evaluate the respective roles of intercalation and surface properties such as acidity, the materials were characterized in the liquid phase by Raman spectroscopy using organic bases such as n-alkylamines (butylamine and octylamine) and pyridine. Intercalation with possible reagents, n-alcohols and 2,5-hexanediol, was also studied. The catalytic activity of these layered oxides was evaluated using a novel test reaction: the cyclo-dehydration of 2,5-hexanediol into 2,5-dimethyltetrahydrofuran. HNbMoO6 proved to be the most active catalyst, compared to conventional acidic catalysts or other layered materials. The acidity and intercalation ability of the various layered materials were compared to understand the differences observed for the catalytic activity.

Title: Application of Molecular Simulations in Complex Structural Analysis of Layered Materials Author: RNDr. Marek Veteška Department: Department of Chemical Physics and Optics Supervisor: RNDr. Miroslav Pospíšil, Ph.D., Dept. of Chemical Physics and Optics Abstract: Techniques of molecular simulations were used together with experimental measurements (X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetry, infrared spectroscopy, elemental analysis and others) to clarify the structure properties of various types of layered materials. The structure of Zn-Al-layered double hydroxide intercalated by pyrenetetra- sulfonate acid was solved. Depending on the relative humidity, the samples showed different arrangements with three planes of water molecules and with either one or two planes of pyrenetetrasulfonate anions. At the same time considerable variability of anions arrangement was demonstrated. The adsorption behavior of natural montmorillonite and montmorillonite modified by tetramethylammonium cations in relation to aniline and phe- nol was explored. Adsorption features differed according to both the type of adsorbed molecules and the type of adsorbents. An important role was played by the plane of water molecules right above the surface which medi- ated adsorption of anilines. The water plane area was reduced by...