Orientadores: Everardo Magalhães Carneiro, Marcia Queiroz Latorraca / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-10T10:35:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Veloso_RobertoVilela_D.pdf: 1133010 bytes, checksum: ae2bb8d027240ebc20854087fa364a1b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007 / Resumo: A restrição protéica materna reduz o crescimento e promove alterações permanentes na estrutura e função de órgãos da prole, contribuindo para o desenvolvimento de doenças cardiovasculares, obesidade e diabetes. O consumo de alimentos à base de soja está associado a um menor risco de desenvolver diabetes pelo seu conteúdo de isoflavonas e pela composição de aminoácidos de sua proteína que contribuem para uma melhora na secreção de insulina. Tem sido sugerido que a genisteína, uma isoflavona da soja, modula a secreção de insulina através das vias AMPc/PKA e PLC/PKC. Deste modo, nós avaliamos o valor biológico da dieta à base de farinha de soja e seus efeitos sobre o crescimento de órgãos, o perfil de aminoácidos, insulina e metabólitos séricos em ratos submetidos à restrição protéica na infância e recuperados com essa dieta após o desmame, bem como o efeito da dieta à base de soja sobre a secreção de insulina em resposta a glicose e a ativadores do adenilato ciclase e proteína quinase C, além da expressão da PKAa e PKCa em ilhotas pancreáticas de ratos adultos. Ratos de mães alimentadas com 17% ou 6% de proteína (caseína) durante a gestação e lactação foram mantidos com dieta contendo 17% de proteína à base de caseína (grupos CC e RC) ou dieta com 17% de proteína à base de farinha de soja (grupos CS e RS) e dieta com 6% de proteína (grupo HP). Após 90 dias de idade, proles de mães alimentadas com dieta hipoprotéica exibiram déficit permanente de peso corpóreo e de concentrações séricas de insulina, taurina, glutamina, fenilserina e lisina, porém apresentaram um aumento no peso relativo dos órgãos, exceto do fígado. A dieta à base de farinha de soja reduziu o peso relativo do fígado e aumentou as concentrações séricas de insulina, taurina, ornitina e fenilserina. Embora ratos recuperados com soja (RS) tenham ingerido mais dieta proporcionalmente ao peso corpóreo do que os ratos recuperados com caseína (RC) eles mostraram menor coeficiente de eficácia alimentar, e resultou em peso corpóreo final similar entre esses grupos. As concentrações séricas de albumina e proteínas totais não diferiram entre os grupos RS e RC. A dieta à base de soja melhorou a resposta de células beta de ratos controles em concentrações fisiológicas de glicose, enquanto em ilhotas de ratos recuperados isso ocorreu na presença de concentrações suprafisiológicas de glicose. A presença de PMA induziu uma resposta secretória com potência similar em ilhotas dos grupos RS e CS e a expressão de PKC foi similar em todos os grupos, exceto no grupo HP, que expressou menores concentrações dessa proteína. A adição de forskolin ao meio de incubação aumentou a secreção de insulina em ratos recuperados e naqueles mantidos com caseína e a expressão de PKAa foi maior no grupo RS em relação ao grupo CS. Esses resultados sugerem que dieta à base de farinha de soja é capaz de promover a recuperação nutricional em animais submetidos à restrição protéica em fases críticas de desenvolvimento, melhorando o perfil de aminoácidos séricos que estimulam a secreção de insulina. Além disso, a melhora na secreção de insulina parece não ser devido a ativação das vias AMPc/PKA e inositol fosfato/PKC / Abstract: Maternal protein restriction leads to reduction in the growth of organs, permanent changes in their structure and functions contributing to development of cardiovascular disease, obesity and diabetes. Consumption of soy-based foods is associated to lower risk of diabetes by its isoflavone content and amino acid composition of its protein that contribute to improve of insulin secretion. It has been suggested that genistein, soy isoflavone, modulates the insulin secretion through of cAMP/PKA and PLC/PKC pathways. Thus, we evaluated the biological value of soybean flour diet and its effects on organ growth, serum amino acids, insulin and metabolites profile in rats submitted to protein restriction in early life and recovered with those diet after weaning, as well as, the effect of soybean diet on insulin secretion in response to glucose and activators of adenylate cyclase and PKC, besides the expression of PKA and PKC in pancreatic islets from adult rats. Rats from mothers fed with 17% or 6% protein (casein) during pregnancy and lactation were maintained with 17% casein (CC and CR groups) or soybean (SC and SR groups) diet and with 6% casein (LP groups) diet. At 90d of age offspring of protein-restricted-mothers exhibited permanent deficit of body weight, serum insulin, taurine, glutamine, phenylserine and lysine concentrations, but increased relative organs¿ weight, except liver. Soybean flour diet reduced the relative liver weight and increased serum insulin, taurine, ornithine and phenylserine concentrations. Although SR rats had eaten proportionally to body weight more diet than CR rats they showed lower feed conversion efficiency which resulted in the final body weight similar between these groups. The SR and CR also exhibited similar serum albumin and protein concentrations. Soybean diet improved the response of ß-cells from control rats to a physiological concentration of glucose, whereas in islets from recovered rats this occurred in presence of a supra-physiological glucose concentration. PMA induced similar potent secretory response in islets from SR and SC groups and PKC expression was similar in all groups, except LP that expressed lower levels this protein. Forskolin increased the insulin secretion in recovered rats and in those maintained with casein diet and PKA expression was higher in SR than in SC rats. These results suggest that soybean flour diet is able to promote the nutritional recovery in animals submitted to protein restriction in critical phase of development improving serum amino acid levels that have the stimulatory effect on insulin release. Moreover the improve of insulin secretion seemed does not to be due the activation of the cAMP/PKA and inositol phosphate/PKC pathways / Doutorado / Fisiologia / Doutor em Biologia Funcional e Molecular

Células tronco embrionárias (CTE) são capazes de proliferar indefinidamente mantendo a sua pluripotência, isto é, a capacidade de se diferenciar em diversos tipos celulares perante estímulos adequados. Esse potencial tem sido intensamente estudado, de modo a permitir a utilização dessas células em terapias de reposição celular. Trabalhos anteriores demonstraram que as proteínas kinases C (PKC) são importantes moduladores moleculares de cascatas de sinalização que levam ao processo de proliferação e auto-renovação das CTE. Porém o papel exato das diferentes isoenzimas das PKCs ainda não foi elucidado. Isso ocorre porque a família das PKCs é composta por pelo menos dez isoenzimas e apenas, recentemente, desenvolveram-se moduladores específicos para as diferentes isoenzimas, o que permitirá estudar o papel específico dessas quinases. No presente trabalho verificamos que a ativação da PKCδ induziu a proliferação de CTE indiferenciadas sem induzir a diferenciação das mesmas. Para tentar elucidar as vias de sinalização mediadas pela PKC&#948 que levam à proliferação das CTE indiferenciadas realizamos estudos de fosfoproteômica o que possibilitou a identificação de potenciais alvos diretos e indiretos da PKC&#948. Dentre os alvos identificados foram encontradas diversas proteínas relacionadas com proliferação, transcrição, tradução e resposta ao stress (chaperonas), contribuindo para a hipótese de que a ativação da PKCδ leva à proliferação das CTE indiferenciadas. Em diversos sistemas, a ativação da PKCδ leva à ativação da MAPK, em particular das ERK1/ 2, sendo essa via capaz de induzir a proliferação de diversas linhagens celulares. Identificamos diversas proteínas alvos da PKC&#948, que interagem também com componentes da via das MAPKs. Desta forma, verificamos a influência da ativação da PKC&#948 na via das MAPKs. De fato, a ativação da PKC&#948 na linhagem de CTE murinas indiferenciadas, E14TG2a, ativou a MEK, ERK1/ 2 e o fator de transcrição ELK-1. Como estudos anteriores demonstraram que a inibição da ERK1/ 2 mantém CTE indiferenciadas e que a ativação desta via poderia levar à diferenciação de CTE, investigamos a cinética de ativação da ERK pela PKC&#948. Demonstramos que a ativação da ERK pela PKC&#948 se da de modo transiente e que apesar da PKC&#948 não translocar para o núcleo, sua ativação induz a fosforilação e translocação nuclear da ERK, que atuará na fosforilação do fator de transcrição ELK-1. Desta forma, concluímos que a PKC&#948 induz a proliferação das CTE murinas indiferenciadas ativando transitoriamente a via das ERK1/ 2, que translocam para o núcleo fosforilando fatores de transcrição como a ELK1 e levando possivelmente ao aumento de proliferação dessas células. A ativação transiente das ERK1/ 2 pela PKC&#948 é importante para a auto-renovação das CTE. / Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are able of proliferating indefinitely maintaining their pluripotency, which is the capability to differentiate in different cell types upon appropriate stimuli. Pluripotency has been intensely investigated in order to allow the use of these cells in cellular replacement therapies. Previous work has demonstrated that the serine/ threonine kinases, such as, Protein kinases C (PKC) are important modulators of signaling cascades that lead to the process of proliferation and self-renewal of ESC. However, the exact role of the different PKC isoenzymes still remains to be elucidated. Due to the fact that the PKC family is composed of at least ten different isoenzymes and only recently isoenzyme specific modulators have been developed, which now allows the elucidation of these kinases roles. In the present work we verified that activation of PKC&#948 induced undifferentiated ESC have their proliferation rate increased. Trying to elucidate the signaling pathways mediated by PKC&#948 that lead to the proliferation increase we performed phosphoproteomic studies to identify potential PKC&#948 targets. Between the targets identified we found several proteins related with proliferation, protein transcription, translation and stress response (chaperones). These targets contributed to the hypothesis that PKC&#948 activation leads to undifferentiated ESC proliferation. In different cell lines, PKC&#948 activation leads to MAPK activation, through ERK1/ 2 activation, which are frequently involved with cellular proliferation. We also identified several targets of PKC&#948 that Interact with several components of MAPK`s signaling cascade. PKC&#948 activation in murine undifferentiated ESC line, E14TG2a, led to MEK, ERK1/ 2 and the transcription factor Elk-1 activation. Some articles demonstrate that the inhibition of ERK1/2 are responsible to maintains ESC undifferentiated and that it`s activation could lead to ESC differentiation. Analysing the kinetics of ERK activation in the ESC by PKC&#948, we show that ERK activation was transient and despite the fact that PKC&#948 does not translocated to the nucleus upon activation, but induces ERK activation and it`s nuclear translocation, where ERK could phosphorylate the transcription factor Elk-1. In conclusion PKC&#948 induces undifferentiated murine ESC proliferation increase by a transient ERK activation and it`s nuclear translocation.

A família proteína quinases C (PKC) é composta por dez isoenzimas, as quais são capazes de fosforilar resíduos de serina e treonina. A ativação dessas quinases envolve mudanças conformacionais, como a remoção do pseudo-substrato do sítio ativo e associação dessas enzimas com lipídeos em membranas biológicas. Além disso, três fosforilações são importantes para a maturação/ enovelamento da enzima e não estão associadas com o estado de ativação das cPKCs. Apesar dessas quinases estarem envolvidas em vários processos patológicos, como carcinogênese e doenças cardiovasculares, ainda não se estabeleceu a relação entre estado de ativação das PKCs com essas doenças. Isso se deve, em parte, à ausência de ferramentas que possibilitam a distinção das formas ativas e inativas das PKCs. Na presente tese, baseando-se em mudanças conformacionais sofridas pelas PKCs durante o processo de ativação, dois anticorpos contra cPKCs ativas foram racionalmente desenvolvidos, sendo um anticorpo policlonal (anti-C2Cat) e outro monoclonal (4.8E). O anticorpo anti-C2Cat foi desenvolvido a partir de imunização de coelhos com um peptídeo localizado na região de interação entre os domínios C2 e catalítico na PKC inativa. Já o anticorpo monoclonal 4.8E foi produzido após a imunização de camundongos Balb/ C com extrato de proteínas proveniente de células HEK293T superexpressando formas constitutivamente ativas da PKCβI. A seletividade de anti-C2Cat e 4.8E por cPKCs ativas foi demonstrada por ensaios de ELISA e de imunoprecipitação, sendo que os anticorpos sempre apresentaram maior afinidade por cPKCs ativas purificadas, superexpressas ou mesmo as endógenas. O anticorpo anti-C2Cat foi capaz de monitorar a dinâmica espaço-temporal da ativação das cPKCs em linhagens de neuroblastoma (Neuro-2A e SK-N-SH) estimuladas com PMA, morfina, ATP ou glutamato por diferentes tempos. Ainda, um maior conteúdo de cPKCs ativas foi detectado por anti-C2Cat na linhagem de câncer de mama MDA-MB-231 (triplo- negativa) do que em células MCF-7 (ER+). Em acordo com esses dados, anti-C2Cat identificou uma maior ativação de cPKCs em tumores mais agressivos de câncer de mama (subtipo triplo-negativo) do que em tumores menos agressivos (ER+, subtipo luminal). Os anticorpos conformacionais anti-C2Cat e 4.8E foram aplicados para elucidar vias de sinalização que levam à carcinogênese em células MDA-MB-231, por meio da realização de ensaios de co-imunoprecipitação, seguida pela identificação das proteínas por espectrometria de massas. Usando essa abordagem, os resultados sugerem que as cPKCs ativas possam estar envolvidas com a tradução de proteínas envolvidas na migração celular, como actina. Em conjunto, os resultado obtidos na presente tese demonstram duas formas racionais de desenvolver anticorpos contra cPKCs ativas, sendo que algumas aplicações para estas ferramentas foram demonstradas. Estratégias baseadas em mudanças conformacionais, similares às apresentadas aqui, poderão ser utilizadas para a produção racional de anticorpos contra outras quinases ou proteínas / The protein kinase C family (PKC) is composed of ten isoenzymes, which are capable of phosphorylating serine and threonine amino acid residues. PKC activation involves conformational changes, such as removing the pseudo-substrate from the active site and binding of the enzyme to lipids in biological membranes. In addition, PKC undergoes three phosphorylations that are important for the maturation/ folding of the enzyme and are not linked with activation status. Despite the fact that these kinases are involved in various pathological processes, such as carcinogenesis and cardiovascular disease, a relationship between PKC activation status with these diseases has not yet been established. This is partly due to the lack of tools to detect active PKC in tissue samples. In this thesis, based on conformational changes suffered by PKC during its activation, two antibodies against active cPKCs were rationally developed; a polyclonal antibody (anti-C2Cat) and a monoclonal (4.8E). Anti-C2Cat was produced after immunization of rabbits with a peptide located at the interface between the C2 and catalytic domains of cPKCs in an inactive PKC. The monoclonal antibody 4.8E was produced after immunization of Balb/C mice with total lysates from HEK293T cells overexpressing constitutively active forms of PKCβI. The anti-C2Cat and 4.8E specificity by active cPKCs was demonstrated by ELISA and immunoprecipitation assays, where the antibodies always showed higher affinity to active cPKCs. Anti-C2Cat was able to detect the temporal and spatial dynamics of cPKC activation upon receptor (morphine, ATP or glutamate) or phorbol ester stimulation in neuroblastoma lines (Neuro-2A and SK-N-SH). Futhermore, anti-C2Cat is able to detect active PKC in human tissues. Higher levels of active cPKC were observed in the more aggressive triple negative breast cancer tumors as compared to the less aggressive estrogen receptor positive tumors. Also, both antibodies were applied to study signaling pathways that lead to carcinogenesis in MDA-MB-231 cells by performing co-immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry. Using this approach, the results suggest that active cPKCs may be involved in translation of proteins involved in cell migration, such as actin. Taken together, the results obtained in this thesis showed two rational ways to develop antibodies against active cPKCs and some applications for these tools were demonstrated. Strategies based on conformational changes, similar to those presented herein may be used for rational production of antibodies against other kinases and proteins.

Dopamine (DA) governs movement, sleep, reward, and cognition. The presynaptic dopamine transporter (DAT), clears released DA, controlling DA signaling and homeostasis. Genetic DAT ablation causes hyperactivity, sleep reduction, and altered psychostimulant response. DAT surface expression is dynamic; DAT constitutively internalizes and recycles to and from the plasma membrane, and acute PKC activation stimulates DAT endocytosis. Cell line experiments demonstrated that PKC-stimulated DAT endocytosis requires Ack1 inactivation and the GTPase, Rit2. How Rit2 controls PKC-dependent DAT internalization, or whether regulated DAT endocytosis impacts behavior, is unknown. Here, I present data supporting that PKC activation stimulates Rit2/DAT dissociation, mediated by the DAT N-terminus. Further, Ack1 and Rit2 function independently to facilitate PKC-stimulated DAT internalization. Moreover, PKC-stimulated DAT endocytosis was limited to ventral striatum in ex vivo slice preparations, and required Rit2. Our lab previously demonstrated that certain DA-dependent behaviors required DAergic Rit2 in mice, however whether this was due to perturbed PKC-stimulated DAT internalization, or DAT-independent Rit2 function(s) remains untested. To address this, I turned to Drosophila and its Rit2 homolog Ric. I found that Ric and dDAT proteins interact in cell lines, and that constitutively active Ric (RicQ117L) increased dDAT function in cultured cells and ex vivo whole fly brains. However, neither DAergic Ric knockdown nor RicQ117L altered overall locomotion or sleep, suggesting that these fundamental behaviors do not require DAergic Ric. Together, these results expand our understanding of intrinsic mechanisms controlling DAT endocytosis, and their impact on behavior.

1. The effect of urotensin II (U-II) on spontaneous transmitter release was examined in the frog to see if the biological activity of this vasoactive peptide extended to neural tissues. 2. In normal Ringer solution, frog and human U-II (fU-II and hU-II, respectively) caused concentration-dependent, reversible increases in miniature endplate potential (MEPP) frequency, with hU-II about 22 times more potent than fU-II. hU-II caused a dose-dependent increase in MEPP amplitude, whereas fU-II caused an increase, followed by a decrease with higher concentrations. 3. Increasing extracellular Ca 2+ three-fold had no effect on the MEPP frequency increase to 25 μM hU-II. Pretreatment with thapsigargin to deplete endoplasmic reticulum Ca 2+ caused a 61% reduction in the MEPP frequency increase to 25 μM hU-II. 4. Pretreatment with the phospholipase C inhibitor U-73122 caused a 93% reduction in the MEPP frequency increase to 25 μM hU-II and a 15% reduction in the increase in MEPP amplitude. Pretreating with antibodies against the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP 3) type 1 receptor using liposomal techniques reduced the MEPP frequency increase by 83% but had no effect on MEPP amplitude. 5. Pretreating with protein kinase C inhibitors (bisindolylmaleimide I and III) had no effect on the response to 25 μM hU-II, but pretreating with protein kinase A inhibitors (H-89 and KT5720) reduced the MEPP frequency increase by 88% and completely abolished the increase in MEPP amplitude. 6. Our results show that hU-II is a potent stimulator of spontaneous transmitter release in the frog and that the effect is mediated by IP 3 and cyclic AMP/protein kinase A.

Calcium tolerant pig and rabbit cardiomyocytes were isolated using retrograde aortic perfusion of nominally calcium-free collagenase. Preconditioning protocols used 1 or 3 x l0-min episodes of ischemic pelleting or pre-incubation with 100 μM adenosine, followed by a 15-min post-incubation and 180-240-min ischemic pelleting. Control cells were incubated and washed in parallel with the experimental groups. Injury was assessed by determination of cell morphology, trypan blue permeability following osmotic swelling, lactate and HPLC analysis of adenine nucleotides. Preconditioned pig cardiomyocytes had a reduced rate of ischemic contracture, but protection occurred without conservation of ATP. Preconditioned rabbit cardiomyocytes were protected without significant changes in rates of ischemic contracture or ATP depletion. Incubation of ischemic cells with the protein phosphatase inhibitor, fostriecin, at PP2A-selective concentrations (0.1-10 μM), mimicked preconditioning in both rabbit and pig cardiomyocytes. In rabbits, the K(ATP) channel blocker, 5-hydroxydecanoate (5-HD), did not block preconditioning or fostriecin protection. In the pig, 5-HD blocked both preconditioning and fostriecin protection, with return of the rates of ischemic contracture to control. However, 5-HD was an effective blocker of protection only in early ischemia. Fostriecin mimicked preconditioning in the rabbit and the early responses of the preconditioned pig. Preconditioning appears associated with protein phosphorylation in both the rabbit and the pig, but major pathways leading to protection may differ in the two species.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The epidemic of obesity and associated cardiovascular complications continues to grow at an alarming rate. Currently, obesity is thought to initiate a state of chronic inflammation, which if unresolved potentially causes cardiovascular dysfunction and disease. Although poorly understood, release of inflammatory mediators and other cytokines from adipose tissue (adipocytokines) has been proposed to be the molecular link between obesity and coronary artery disease. Furthermore, the anatomic location of adipose has been increasingly recognized as a potential contributor to vascular disease. Importantly, the development of coronary atherosclerosis, a key component of heart disease, is typically found in segments of coronary arteries surrounded by perivascular adipose tissue. Accordingly, the goal of this project was to determine how perivascular adipose tissue affects coronary artery function and elucidate the critical mechanisms involved. Initial studies assessing arterial function were conducted with and without perivascular adipose tissue. Preliminary results demonstrated that factors released by perivascular adipose tissue effectively impaired coronary endothelial function both in vitro and in vivo. This observation was determined to be caused by direct inhibition of nitric oxide synthase (NOS), a critical enzyme for the production nitric oxide. Attenuation of endothelium-dependent vasodilation was independent of changes in superoxide production, smooth muscle response, or peroxide-mediated vasodilation. Additional studies revealed that perivascular adipose-induced impairment of NOS was due to increased inhibitory regulation by the β isoform of protein kinase C (PKC-β). Specifically, perivascular adipose-derived factors caused site specific phosphorylation of nitric oxide synthase at Thr-495. Additional experiments investigated how perivascular adipose-derived factors contributed to coronary artery disease in an animal model of obesity. Results from these studies indicated that perivascular adipose-derived leptin markedly exacerbated underlying endothelial dysfunction, and significantly contributed to coronary endothelial dysfunction through a PKC-β dependent mechanism. Findings from this project confirm epicardial perivascular adipose tissue as a local source of harmful adipocytokines. In addition, perivascular adipose-derived leptin was demonstrated to be a critical mediator of coronary vascular dysfunction in obesity. Together, the results strongly suggest that perivascular adipose tissue is a key contributor to coronary artery disease in obesity.

Background. A number of studies suggest that premenopausal diabetic women loose the gender based cardiovascular protection. However, there is insufficient evidence to establish the timeline or the mechanism(s) underlying the loss of premenopausal female specific cardiovascular protection in presence of hyperglycemia. Objectives. The objectives of our study were to investigate (1) if there is a gender based difference in the relaxation response of rat and rabbit aorta after acute exposure to high glucose (HG) concentration, and (2) the potential role of protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms (-α,-β,-δ), superoxide and Rho kinase in the HG-induced vascular dysfunction. Methods. Endothelium-dependent vasodilation (EDV) to acetylcholine (ACh, 10 -8 to 10 -5 M) was determined before and after 3 h treatment with Krebs' solution containing HG (46 mM) in aortic rings pre-contracted with phenylephrine (2 μM) taken from female and male rats (Sprague-Dawley) and rabbits (New Zealand White). Similar experiments were generated in the presence of 9 nM Ro-32-0432, a selective PKC-α inhibitor, 1 μM LY379196, a selective PKC-β inhibitor, 6 μM Rottlerin, a selective PKC-δ inhibitor, 25 μM MnTMPyP, a superoxide scavenger or 1 μM Fasudil, a Rho kinase inhibitor. Furthermore, the effect of acute estrogen administration on hyperglycemia-induced endothelial dysfunction was evaluated in male and female rabbits. Lastly, mRNA and protein expression of PKC isoforms were measured by RT-PCR and Western blotting, respectively. Results. We demonstrated that (1) a 3 h incubation with elevated level of glucose impairs ACh responses only in the female rat aortic rings but not in males. A similar exposure to HG impairs relaxation to a greater extend in female than male rabbit aorta, (2) inhibition of PKC-β but not Rho kinase prevents the HG-induced impairment of endothelium-dependent relaxation of female rat and rabbit aorta, (3) superoxide scavenging significantly corrected the vascular impairment caused by hyperglycemia in female rat and rabbits, and (4) PKC-β expression is significantly higher in female rat and rabbit aorta than in their male counterparts. Furthermore, acute 17β-estradiol aggravates HG-induced endothelial dysfunction in female rabbit aorta but not in male. Conclusion. This study reveals the predisposition of female rat and rabbit aorta to vascular injury under hyperglycemic conditions, possibly via activation of PKC-β and superoxide production. Furthermore, it suggests that under hyperglycemic conditions acute estrogen treatment is detrimental to endothelial function in female rabbit.

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