Despite the negative effects of fossil fuels on the environment, these remain as the primary contributors to the energy sector. In order to mitigate global warming risks, many countries aim at reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Bioenergy crops are being used as a substitute for fossil fuels and short rotation forestry is a prime example. In order to examine the sustainability of energy crops for fuel, typical European short rotation forestry (SRF) biomass, willow (Salix spp.) and poplar (Populus spp.) are examined and compared to rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) in respect to various aspects of soil respiration and combustion heat obtained from the extracted products per hectare. Various approaches are used to look at an As-contaminated site not only in the field but also in a soil-column experiment that examines the fate of trace elements in SRF soils, and in an analysis using MICMAC to describe the driving factors for SRF crop production. Based on the cause-effect chain, the impacts of land-use change and occupation on ecosystem quality are assessed when land-use is changed from degraded land (grassland) to willow and poplar SRF. A manual opaque dynamic closed chamber system (SEMACH-FG) was utilized to measure CO2 emissions at a willow/poplar short rotation forest in Krummenhennersdorf, Germany during the years 2013 and 2014, and at a rapeseed site in 2014. Short rotation forest soils showed higher CO2 emission rates during the growing season than the dormant season – with a CO2 release of 5.62±1.81 m-2 s-1 for willows and 5.08±1.37 µmol CO2 m-2 s-1 for poplars in the growing season. However, during the dormant season the soil sites with willow emitted 2.54±0.81 µmol CO2 m-2 s-1 and with poplar 2.07±0.56 µmol CO2 m-2 s-1. The highest emission rates for the studied plantations were observed in July for both years 2013 and 2014, during which the highest air and soil temperatures were recorded. Correlations between soil emission of CO2 and some meteorological parameters and leaf characteristics were investigated for the years 2013 and 2014. For example, for the willow clone (Jorr) and poplar clone (Max 3), high correlations were found for each between their soil emission of CO2 and both soil temperature and moisture content. Fitted models can explain about 77 and 75% of the results for Jorr and Max 3 clones, respectively. Moreover, a model of leaf area (LA) can explain about 68.6% of soil CO2 emission for H275. Estimated models can be used as a gap-filling method, when field data is not available. The ratio between soil respiration and the combustion heat calculated from the extracted products per hectare was evaluated and compared for the study’s willow, poplar and rapeseed crops. The results show that poplar and willow SRF has a very low ratio of 183 kg CO2 GJ 1 compared to rapeseed, 738 kg CO2 GJ 1. The soil-column experiment showed that by continuing the SRF plantation at the As-contaminated site, remediation would need only about 3% of the time needed if the site was left as a fallow field. In order to understand the complex willow and poplar short rotation forestry production system, 50 key variables were identified and prioritized to describe the system as a step to enhance the success of such potentially sustainable projects. The MICMAC approach was used in order to find the direct and the indirect relationships between those parameters and to classify them into different clusters depending on their driving force and interdependency. From this, it can be summarized that in order to enhance the success of a SRF system, decision makers should be focussing on: ensuring a developed wood-fuel market, increasing farmers’ experience/training, improving subsidy regulations and recommending a proper harvesting year cycle. Finally, the impacts of land-use change and occupation on the ecosystem quality were assessed. Results show that establishing SRF plantations on degraded lands improved the ecosystem structural quality (ESQ) by about 43% and ecosystem functional quality (EFQ) by about 12%. Based on overall results, poplar and willow SRF biomass can be recommended as renewable and sustainable sources for bioenergy.

En région tempérée, les cartes historiques ont permis de démontrer que l’ancienneté des forêts conditionne les caractéristiques des sols et la présence de certaines espèces végétales. En revanche, peu d’études ont été réalisées pour tester ces différences en région méditerranéenne. L'objectif général de la thèse est d’analyser les déterminants du changement du couvert forestier et l’effet de la continuité temporelle et des usages passés sur les sols et la flore des forêts actuelles en région méditerranéenne. Ce travail prend place au sein du territoire du Parc Naturel Régional du Luberon. Le premier volet identifie les déterminants de la distribution des usages et de la reconquête forestière, à partir de données cartographiques de 1860, 1958 et 2010. Il apparaît notamment que les forêts se sont maintenues sur les terres les moins productives et que la reconquête forestière s’est faite sur des sols peu productifs, et à proximité des forêts préexistantes. Le second volet explore l’effet de la continuité temporelle et des usages passés des forêts sur leurs caractéristiques écologiques, à partir de relevés floristiques et pédologiques. Les forêts anciennes et récentes se répartissent selon la productivité des sols et accueillent des espèces qui se distinguent par leurs traits et leurs exigences écologiques, avec notamment des espèces spécialistes forestières, phanérophytes et endozoochores plus fréquentes en forêt ancienne. Si ce travail s’appuie sur la carte d’État-Major, il s’avère que l’écologie historique des forêts méditerranéennes nécessite également des approches in situ afin d’appréhender la complexité des usages anciens du paysage. / In temperate regions, historical maps have demonstrated that forest ancientness determines soil properties and the presence of some plant species. However, those differences were rarely analysed in the Mediterranean region. The main objectives of this PhD thesis are to analyse the drivers of forest cover change and the effect of temporal continuity and past land uses on forest soils and understory vegetation in the Mediterranean region. This work relies on the territory of the Regional Natural Park of Luberon. The first part consists of identifying biophysical and socioeconomic drivers of land use and forest recovery spatial distribution, based on the comparison of 1860, 1958 and 2010 land uses. Forest maintained on the least productive land while forest recovery occurred on soils with low productivity, and close to pre-existing forests. The second part investigates the effect of forest temporal continuity and past land uses on their ecological characteristics, based on floristic and pedological data. Ancient and recent forests are distributed according to soil productivity and host species of differing traits and ecological preferences. Notably, species significantly preferring ancient forests are true forest species, phanerophytes and endozoochores. If this work relies on the État-Major map, it turns out that the historical ecology of Mediterranean forests requires complementary in situ approaches in order to fully understand the complexity of past landscape uses.

Nas últimas décadas as mudanças climáticas foram evidenciadas pelo aumento da temperatura global, diminuição dos estoques de carbono terrestres, associados ao aumento nas emissões de gases de efeito estufa (GEE). A floresta Amazônica é o maior bioma tropical do mundo e desenvolve serviços ambientais estratégicos no planeta. Entretanto, há mais de duas décadas que o desmatamento na Amazônia impulsiona as emissões globais de GEE, diminuindo o armazenamento de carbono do solo com alterações na dinâmica nas populações microbianas e nos ciclos biogeoquimicos pela mudança de uso da terra. O objetivo desse estudo foi avaliar as alterações temporais dos atributos químicos do solo, quantificar as emissões de CO2, CH4 e N2O e verificar as alterações na estrutura bacteriana do solo após o corte e queima de vegetação nativa na Amazônia. O estudo foi desenvolvido em área de vegetação nativa no norte do estado de Rondônia, região sul da Amazônia no Brasil. A área de estudo consistiu-se de quatro hectares, onde foi realizado o corte e queima em 2,25 hectares. Foram realizadas amostragens para avaliação da fertilidade do solo e estoques de carbono (C) e nitrogenio (N) nas profundidades de 0-5, 5-10, 10-15, 15-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-50, 50-60, 60-80 e 80-100 cm. As coletas foram realizadas em vegetação nativa e aos 2, 30, 60, 90, 120, 240 e 365 dias após corte e queima. Foram determinados os atributos pH, Al, H+Al, Ca, Mg, K, P, C, N e calculados os valores de soma de bases, CTC, V % e m %. As coletas para quantificar as emissões dos GEE foram realizadas simultaneamente na área de vegetação nativa e no hectare central da área de corte e queima aos 19, 31, 48, 61 e 81 dias após corte e 2 , 4, 6, 8, 15, 31, 45, 61, 88, 122, 153, 180, 240 e 350 dias após queima, com amostragens aos 0, 20, 40 e 60 minutos. Os atributos microbiológicos do solo foram avaliados pela técnica de T-RFLP com amostragens realizadas simultaneas nas duas áreas, aos 32 e 62 dias após o corte e aos 2, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, e 360 dias após queima da biomassa vegetal. Foi verificado rápido aumento da fertilidade do solo e diminuição da acidez e teores de Al+3 após a queima, entretanto esse efeito foi pouco persistente, retornando ao status inicial do solo após um ano. Houve redução de 30 % nos estoques de C e N do solo no final do estudo, evidenciando os efeitos deletérios da mudança do uso da terra nos atributos químicos do solo. Foi registrado redução de 50 % das emissões de CO2 equivalente após o corte, comparada à vegetação nativa e reduções nas emissões de GEE de 35 % após um ano de estudo. Verificou-se na camada superficial, alterações significativas na estrutura da comunidade bacateriana do solo em decorrência do impacto do fogo e das alterações nos atributos químicos em função da deposição superficial de cinzas no solo, entretanto não foi verificada alterações significativa nas camadas abaixo de 5 cm. Este estudo forneceu importantes informações para o entendimento dos impactos e as alterações causadas pelo processo de conversão florestal tropical pelo corte e queima de vegetação nativa na Amazônia. / In recent decades, climate change has been evidenced by the increase in global temperature and the decrease in terrestrial carbon stocks, associated with an increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The Amazon rainforest is the largest tropical biome in the world and develops strategic environmental services on the planet. However, for more than two decades, deforestation in Amazon has driven global GHG emissions, reducing soil carbon storage with changes in microbial populations dynamics and in biogeochemical cycles due to land use change. The objective of this study was to evaluate the temporal alterations of soil chemical attributes, quantify CO2, CH4 and N2O emissions and verify changes in soil bacterial structure, due to the slash and burn of the native vegetation in Amazon. The study was developed in an area of native vegetation in the north of Rondônia state, southern region of Amazon in Brazil. The study area consisted of 4 hectares, where it was cut and burned in 2.25 hectares. Samples were collected to evaluate soil fertility and carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) stocks at the depths of 0-5, 5-10, 10-15, 15-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40- 50, 50-60, 60-80 and 80-100 cm. These samples were collected in native vegetation at 2, 30, 60, 90, 120, 240 and 365 days after cutting and burning. The attributes pH, Al, H + Al, Ca, Mg, K, P, C, N were determined and the values of base sum, CEC, base saturation and aluminum saturation were calculated. The samples to quantify GHG emissions were carried out simultaneously in the native vegetation area and in the central hectare of the cutting and burning area at 19, 31, 48, 61 and 81 days after cutting and 2, 4, 6, 8, 15, 31, 45, 61, 88, 122, 153, 180, 240 and 350 days after burning, with samples at 0, 20, 40 and 60 minutes. The microbiological attributes of the soil were evaluated by T-RFLP technique with simultaneous samplings in the two areas, at 32 and 62 days after cutting and at 2, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, and 360 days after plant biomass burning. A rapid increase in soil fertility and a decrease in acidity and Al+3 contents after burning were verified, however this effect was not persistent, returning to the initial soil status after one year. There was a 30 % reduction in soil C and N stocks at the end of the study, evidencing the deleterious effects of land use change on soil chemical attributes. Also, a 50 % reduction in CO2 emissions after cutting, compared to native vegetation and, a 35 % reduction in GHG emissions after one year of study, were observed. We verified in the surface layer, significant alterations in the soil bacteria structure due to the fire impact and the changes in the chemical attributes, such as surface deposition of ashes. However, we did not verified significant changes in the layers lower than 5 cm. Our study provided important information for understanding the impacts and changes of the tropical forest conversion process by slash and burning native vegetation in Amazon.

In spite tropical forests are the most important terrestrial global carbon sinks due to carbon storage in aboveground biomass, it is also the primary target of deforestation. The conversion of Tropical forests into anthropogenic areas might disrupt biological flux and also lead to severe microclimatic changes at forest edges. These combined effects can trigger profound changes in plant composition through both high mortality of fragmentation-sensitive species and proliferation of disturbed-adapted species which will ultimately impacts carbon storage. Thus, our main objective in this study was understand the role of human-induced disturbances in modulate the dimension of biomass loss at tropical forests. We applied a systematic literature review searching for empirical evidences that edge effects can drive biomass loss in tropical forests (Chapter 2). Our findings highlighted the gap of knowledge about the pattern and process related to biomass loss in tropical forests. To strengthen this understanding, we formulated a conceptual model linking landscape structure and patch-level attributes to severity of edge effects affecting aboveground biomass. Our model hypothesizes that habitat amount, isolation, time since edge creation, and the synergism between edge distance, patch size, and matrix type are the main drivers of biomass loss in anthropogenic tropical forests. We thus used a large plant dataset (18 503 trees ≥ 10 cm dbh) from 146 sites distributed across four Mexican and four Brazilian rainforest regions to test our conceptual model predictions, specifically the influence of forest cover, site isolation, edge distance, patch size and type of matrix on biomass (Chapter 3). We observed that carbon-rich sites presented species that are typical of old-growth forests (shade-tolerant, large-seeded, zoocoric) contrasting to carbon-poor sites composed by disturbed-adapted species (pioneer occupying the understory). Large shade-tolerant trees (≥ 40 cm dbh) were impacted severely by the combination of forest loss and edge effects. Edge distance, patch size, and the amount of open-matrix strongly influence small shade-tolerant trees (≤ 20 cm dbh). Although our results do not fully corroborate the initial predictions of the conceptual model, they support the idea that landscape composition interact with patch structure and ultimately impacts biomass stocks in fragmented tropical forests. Finally, we further investigated if the disturbance level of the region influences plant-structure responses to forest loss (Chapter 4). Biomass, but not plant density, was affected by forest loss in regions with intermediate disturbance levels, i.e. regions showing a combination of moderate deforestation (20-40% of remaining forest cover) disturbed during the past 30-60 years, high defaunation but harboring relictual populations of large-mammals, and areas mostly composed by heterogeneous matrices. In general, our findings highlight that both landscape composition and patch structure are the main drivers of biomass loss in Neotropical forests, and that the landscape context must be considered to obtain more reliable estimations of carbon emissions due to forest degradation. Landscape planning (e.g. restoration of forest cover) should be included in conservation strategies in order to sustain carbon storage. Moreover, we advocate that conservation initiatives will be less costly and more effective if implemented in areas under intermediate disturbance levels / Apesar das florestas tropicais serem a mais importante fonte mundial de carbono da porção terrestre do globo devido ao armazenamento de carbono na biomassa acima do solo, elas são também o alvo primário do desmatamento. A conversão das florestas Tropicais em áreas antropogênicas pode interromper o fluxo biológico e também levar a severas mudanças microclimáticas na borda dos fragmentos. A combinação desses efeitos pode engatilhar profundas mudanças na composição da vegetação através tanto da mortalidade de espécies sensíveis à fragmentação como também pela proliferação de espécies adaptadas distúrbios, com impactos finais nos estoques de carbono. Assim, o maior objetivo desse estudo foi compreender o papel dos distúrbios induzidos pelo homem na modulação da dimensão da perda de biomassa em florestas Tropicais. Nós aplicamos uma revisão sistemática da literatura procurando por evidências empíricas de que o efeito de borda pode levar a perda de biomassa em florestas tropicais (Capítulo 2). Nossos resultados destacam a lacuna de conhecimento entre padrões e processos relacionados à perda de biomassa em florestas Tropicais. Para fortalecer esse conhecimento, nós formulamos um modelo conceitual conectando estrutura da paisagem e atributos na escala do fragmento à severidade do efeito de borda, e assim afetando a biomassa acima do solo. Nosso modelo hipotetiza que a quantidade de hábitat, o isolamento, o tempo desde a formação da borda e o sinergismo entre tamanho do fragmento, distância da borda e tipo de matriz são os principais condutores de perda de biomassa em florestas Tropicais antropogênicas. Utilizando um grande banco de dados (18 503 árvores ≥ 10 cm dap) provenientes de 146 locais distribuídos em quatro regiões de floresta úmida no México e quatro no Brasil, nós então testamos as predições do nosso modelo conceitual. Especificamente, a influência da cobertura florestal, isolamento, distância da borda, tamanho do fragmento e tipo de matriz sobre a biomassa (Capítulo 3). Nós observamos que áreas com muito carbono apresentaram espécies típicas de florestas maduras (tolerantes ao sombreamento, zoocóricas, com sementes grandes) contrastando com áreas com pouco carbono compostas por espécies adaptadas à distúrbio (pioneiras ocupando o sub-bosque). Árvores grandes tolerantes ao sombreamento (≥ 40 cm dap) foram impactadas severamente pela combinação de perda de cobertura florestal e efeitos de borda. Distância da borda, tamanho do fragmento e a extensão da área de matriz aberta influenciaram fortemente as árvores pequenas tolerantes a sombreamento (≤ 20 cm dap). Apesar dos nossos resultados não corroborarem completamente as predições iniciais do nosso modelo conceitual, eles dão suporte à ideia de que a composição da paisagem interage com a estrutura do fragmento com impactos finais nos estoques de biomassa em florestas Neotropicais. Por fim, nós investigamos se o nível de distúrbio da região pode influenciar nas respostas da estrutura da vegetação à perda de cobertura florestal. Biomassa, mas não a densidade de indivíduos, foi afetada pela perda de cobertura florestal em regiões com nível intermediário de distúrbio, i.e. regiões apresentando uma combinação de níveis moderados de desmatamento (20-40% de cobertura florestal remanescente) em que a perturbação ocorreu ao longo dos últimos 30-60 anos, com alto grau de defaunação mas ainda abrigando populações relictuais de grandes mamíferos e, em sua maioria, compostos por uma matriz heterogênea. Em geral, nossos resultados destacaram que tanto a composição da paisagem como a estrutura do fragmento são os principais condutores de perda de biomassa em florestas Neotropicais e que o contexto da paisagem deve ser considerado para se obter estimativas mais confiáveis de emissão de carbono devido à degradação florestal. O planejamento da paisagem (e.g. restauração da cobertura florestal) deve ser incluído em estratégias de conservação em ordem de sustentar o armazenamento de carbono. Além disso, nós defendemos que iniciativas de conservação serão menos custosas e mais efetivas se implementadas em áreas sob níveis intermediários de distúrbio

Transformações nas condições de vida da Terra fazem parte da nossa história evolutiva. Atualmente, as ações humanas provocam impactos tão intensos que já se considera que estamos marcando uma nova era geológica, o Antropoceno. As alterações globais de origem antropogênica estão relacionadas ao nosso modo de vida moderno e modelo de consumo, assim como ao crescimento demográfico, econômico, agropecuário, industrial que tem demanda crescente por recursos. Todos esses fatores apresentam potenciais efeitos comprometedores às funções ecossistêmicas e dos bens e serviços ambientais. Neste contexto, os sistemas aquáticos continentais, são significativamente impactados pela construção de barragens. As represas envolvem inúmeras transformações ambientais e ecológicas, sociais e econômicas. Já as regiões do seu entorno podem ser beneficiadas com a utilização das águas represadas. Entender a dinâmica da cobertura e uso do solo e analisar se há a abertura de oportunidade para o desenvolvimento de novas atividades econômicas, aproximam a compreensão dos seus impactos como base para a gestão desses ambientes. O objetivo geral desse trabalho foi analisar a influência das Usinas Hidrelétricas Canoas I e II nos municípios do seu entorno, a partir da analise espaço-temporal das mudanças no uso e cobertura do solo e das dinâmicas socioeconômicas relacionadas ao desenvolvimento das atividades de piscicultura. Os resultados obtidos caracterizam as atividades agropastoris da região como a maior força das dinâmicas ambientais e socioeconômicas. A extrema fragmentação da vegetação nativa é a mais importante consequência ecológica desse processo. Já em termos sociais e econômicos às mudanças no perfil da agricultura geraram a urbanização e o exôdo rural, marginalizando pequenos agricultores. A construção dos barramentos de Canoas I e II teve influência na composição da paisagem após a perda, principalmente de terras agrícolas e coincidiu com o aumento das áreas de urbanização, associada a um aumento da área dos fragmentos da cobertura vegetal nativa e um melhora no índice de proximidade, indicando maior conexão entre os mesmos. Para os entrevistados na pesquisa os reservatórios representam uma oportunidade de desenvolvimento da piscicultura, que já desperta interesse na população como a atividade econômica. Mas, há dificuldades a serem superadas para que se concretizem as expectativas de aproveitamento das águas represadas. / Transformations in Earth life conditions are part of our evolutionary history. Currently human activities result in impacts of such magnitude that it has been proposed and widely accepted that we are entering a new geologic era, the Anthropocene. Human induced global changes are related to our modern way of life and the consumption model, as well as to demographic, economic, agricultural and industrial growth, that have an increasing resources demand. All these factors have potential compromising effects on ecosystems functions and good and services that they provide. Furthermore, fresh water ecosystems are highly impacted by river dams. These impoundments involve innumerous environmental and ecological, social and economic transformations, while surrounding areas can benefit from its water use. Understand the land use and cover dynamic and analyze if there are opportunities for new economic activities level the comprehension of their impacts for further environmental management. The overall objective of this study was to analyze the Hydroelectric Power Canoas I and II influence on the watershed counties, by a couple analysis of the spatial and temporal land use changes and the related socio-economic dynamic related to fish farming activities development. Our results show that agriculture and cattle ragging are the main driver of environmental and socio-economic behavior. An extreme native vegetation fragmentation was the most important ecological consequence of this process. In term of social and economic aspects, changes in the agricultural profile lead to an urbanization and rural exodus, marginalizing small framers. The constructions of Canoas I and II dams resulted in losses of agricultural lands, which was associated with an urban sprawl and an area increase of native vegetation patches and proximity index, indicating that they became more connected. For the interviewed local people. The dams represent an opportunity for fish farm developing, since it arouses interest in the population as an economic activity. However, there are difficulties to be overcame to meet the expectation of the impounded waters use.

Sustainability is one of the biggest goals of humankind in the new millennium. An increasing global demand on agricultural products stimulates agricultural expansion in Brazil, especially in the Southwestern Amazon, namely in the Cerrado and Amazon biomes. A better understanding of biogeochemical cycles and their influence on natural and agricultural systems is key to achieve environmental sustainability and improve agricultural efficiency. These biogeochemical cycles are driven by microbes, and the aim of this thesis was to correlate microbial functional group abundances with differences in carbon, nitrogen, and greenhouse gas cycles in response to land use changes in Southwestern Amazon soils. This work was performed at the University of São Paulo, Brazil, and at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, USA, while the candidate was enrolled in Ph.D. programs at both universities. The thesis is composed of five studies. The first study shows that land use change from Cerrado and forest to agriculture (soybean, Glycine max (L. Merrill), in succession with other crops) or pasture (Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) did not reduce soil microbial diversity but changed microbial structure. The second study, a physicochemical background for this land use conversion, describes the alteration of C and N stocks, soil chemical parameters, and microbiological parameters such as biomass, biological C stocks, and changes in the abundance of prokaryotes and fungi. In the third and fourth studies microcosm experiments depict how the agricultural change to soybean and Brachiaria alter the original microbial structure found in forest or cerrado. These studies focused on abundances of key biogeochemical genes (amoA, nirK, nirS, norB, nosZ, mcrA, and pmoA) and correlated gene copy abundances with C, N, and GHG measurements. In the fifth study, in situ soil surveys and GHG samplings were used to characterize the changes from forest to pasture (B. brizantha, 25 years) or soybean crop system (for 2 years or 25 years in succession). We found correlations between genes and processes, indicating that gene abundances provide important microbial information for the understanding of the targeted biogeochemical cycles. Land use, rather than plant species, promotes alterations in microbial gene abundances and processes. During the survey period, forest exhibited higher microbial activity, resulting in higher nitrate availability and N2O emissions. These processes were correlated with higher abundances of process related genes. Nitrate and N2O emissions were lower in agricultural and pasture soils. CO2 emission was higher in the two-year-old soybean plot. The forest and two-year-old soybean plots acted as a sink for CH4, while the pasture plots represented a source of it. The results validated the use of gene abundance determination as a valuable tool to better understand C, N, and GHG processes. The genes nirK, nosZ, and 16S rRNA presented the best correlations with the processes. A larger temporal and spatial analysis is needed to infer statements on the processes dynamics due to land use change. For the first time gene abundance measurements were used to integrate the C, N and GHG cycles, giving insights into land use changes in Southwestern Amazon / Sustentabilidade é um dos maiores objetivos da humanidade no novo milênio. Uma demanda crescente por produtos agrícolas tem estimulado a expansão agrícola no Brasil, especialmente no Sudoeste da Amazônia, nos biomas Cerrado e Amazônia. Um melhor entendimento dos ciclos biogeoquímicos e suas influências em sistemas naturais e agrícolas é chave para se alcançar sustentabilidade ambiental e aumentar eficiência agrícola. Esses ciclos biogeoquímicos são guiados por microrganismos, e o objetivo dessa tese foi correlacionar abundância de grupos funcionais de microrganismos com carbono, nitrogênio e gases de efeito estufa (GEE) em resposta a mudança do uso da terra em solos do sudoeste da Amazônia. Esse trabalho foi realizado na Universidade de São Paulo e na Universidade de Massachusetts Amherst enquanto o doutorando esteve matriculado nas duas universidades. A tese é composta de cinco estudos. O primeiro estudo mostra que a mudança no uso da terra de Cerrado e floresta para agricultura (soja, Glycine max (L. Merrill), em sucessão com outros cultivos) ou pastagem (Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) não reduz diversidade microbiana, mas muda sua estrutura. O segundo estudo descreve as alterações nos estoques de C, N, parâmetros químicos e microbiológicos da conversão de Cerrado para agricultura e pastagem. No terceiro e no quarto estudos, microcosmos foram usados para avaliar a influência de soja e braquiária na microbiota dos solos. Genes chaves dos processos biogeoquímicos (amoA, nirK, nirS, norB, nosZ, mcrA, e pmoA) foram quantificados e correlacionados com C, N e GEE. No quinto estudo, coletas in situ de solo e gases foram usadss para caracterizar a mudança do uso da terra de floresta para pastagem (braquiária, 25 anos) e para agricultura (soja, segundo ano, e soja, 25 anos, em sucessão com outras culturas). Correlações entre genes e processos foram encontradas, indicando que abundância gênica fornece importantes informações para o entendimento dos ciclos biogeoquímicos. Mudança no uso da terra como um todo, mais do que a mudança de vegetação, promove as alterações na abundância gênica e processos do solo. Durante o período de coleta, floresta exibiu maior atividade microbiana, resultando em maior disponibilidade de nitrato e emissão de N2O. Esses processos correlacionam com maior abundância dos genes relacionados aos processos. Quantidades de nitrato e N2O foram menores em agricultura e pastagem. As emissões de CO2 foram maiores na área de soja de segundo ano. Os solos de floresta e soja de segundo ano se mostraram como drenos de metano, enquanto que a pastagem foi uma fonte de emissão. Os resultados validam o uso de abundância gênica como uma técnica valiosa para um melhor entendimento dos ciclos do C, N e GEE. Os genes nirK, nosZ, e 16S rRNA apresentaram as melhores correlações com os processos. Uma análise temporal e espacial mais abrangente é necessária para generalizações sobre a dinâmica dos processos na região estudada. Pela primeira vez abundância gênica foi usada para integrar os ciclos do C, N e GEE, colaborando para um melhor entendimento dos processos relacionados à mudança no uso da terra no sudoeste da Amazônia

Die vorrangige Zielstellung dieser Dissertation war die Berechnung nicht erschlossener landwirtschaftlicher Potenziale des Europäischen Russlands. Wir haben ein räumliches Allokationsmodell entwickelt, dass die jährlichen Acker- und Ackerbrachflächen von 1991 bis 2009 kartiert. Diese Daten haben wir anschließend in ein dynamisches Vegetationsmodell integriert und damit berechnet, dass während der postsowjetischen Aufgabe von 31 Millionen Hektar Ackerland bis 2009 470 TgC in Boden und Vegetation gebunden wurden. Anschließend haben wir ein Pflanzenwachstumsmodell auf regionale Weizenerträge kalibriert und darauf basierend durchschnittliche Ertragslücken von 1.51-2.10 t ha−1 für natürliche (künstlich unbewässerte) und 3.14-3.30 t ha−1 für künstlich bewässerte Anbaubedingungen ermittelt. Die Karte der Ackerbrachflächen, räumlich-explizite Informationen über die Kohlenstoffspeicherung in Boden und Vegetation infolge der Ackerflächenaufgabe sowie unsere Ergebnisse der Ertragslückenberechnung haben wir zur Berechnung von Weizenproduktionspotenzialen verwendet. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, dass das Europäische Russland erhebliche Potenziale mobilisieren kann – bis zu 32 Millionen Tonnen für künstlich unbewässerte Bedingungen – obwohl ausschließlich jüngere Ackerbrachen zur Rekultivierung in unserem Modell berücksichtigt wurden. Ältere Brachflächen haben häufig große Mengen Kohlenstoff in Boden und Vegetation gespeichert; die Rekultivierung ältere Brachflächen würde zu hohen Emissionen führen. Eine wesentliche Schlussfolgerung dieser Dissertation ist daher, dass Produktionssteigerungen vorrangig durch Flächenintensivierung der bestehenden Ackerflächen erzielt werden sollten. Allerdings können die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit helfen, Brachen für die Rekultivierung zu bestimmen, deren Rekultivierung relativ geringe Kohlenstoffemissionen nach sich ziehten. Zudem können die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit nützlich sein, landwirtschaftliche Produktionsmittel effizienter einzusetzen. / This dissertation addresses the primary objective to systematically quantify untapped agricultural potentials in European Russia, where widespread abandoned agricultural lands and large yield gaps co-exist. We developed a spatial allocation model to produce annual cropland and cropland abandonment maps. Feeding the new maps into a dynamic vegetation model revealed that 470 Tg of carbon was sequestered in soil and vegetation due to the abandonment of 31 million hectares of cropland. Thus, the environmental consequences limit the potential for cropland expansion to abandoned cropland. We then calibrated a crop growth model for provincial wheat yields in European Russia and found average yield gaps of 1.51–2.10 t ha−1 under rainfed conditions and 3.14–3.30 t ha−1 under irrigated conditions. The cropland abandonment maps, spatial information on carbon sequestration due to cropland abandonment, and the estimates of yield gaps allowed us to estimate the potential of European Russia to increase its wheat production and to account for the carbon tradeoffs of cropland expansion. We demonstrated that European Russia can substantially increase its wheat production (up to 32 Mt under rainfed conditions). This increase is despite a limited expansion of wheat cultivation to the recently abandoned cropland to reduce the trade-off from the high carbon emissions in re-cultivating older, abandoned cropland where most carbon is stored. Therefore, intensification of the existing croplands is recommended to be the major driver for future growth in agricultural production. This dissertation can help policy makers and agribusiness owners identify areas suitable for cropland expansion, better target agricultural inputs and infrastructures, as well as guide adaptation strategies to the volatile climate conditions. Moreover, this dissertation contributes to better identifying and balancing trade-offs between environmental impacts and increasing agricultural production in European Russia.

In nie dagewesener Größenordnung greift der Mensch durch die Verbrennung fossiler Energieträger und der weiträumigen Umgestaltung der Landoberfläche in die globale Umwelt ein. Klimawandel und Übernutzung natürlicher Ressourcen könnten schon in diesem Jahrhundert die Anpassungsfähigkeiten vieler ökologischer und sozialer Systeme übersteigen und somit zu Konflikten und politischer Destabilisierung führen. Vor diesem Hintergrund soll diese Studie zu einem besseren Verständnis der wichtigsten globalen Triebkräfte beitragen, die die Entwicklung der terrestrischen Biosphäre in diesem Jahrhundert prägen werden: Klimawandel und menschliche Landnutzung. Auf der Basis eines Dynamischen Globalen Vegetationsmodells werden im ersten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit zwei große klimatische Störungen des globalen Kohlenstoffkreislaufs untersucht, die innerhalb der letzten drei Jahrzehnte beobachtet wurden. Im Fordergrund steht die Frage, wie sich die Veränderungen von Temperatur-, Niederschlags- und Strahlungsbedingungen auf pflanzliche Produktivität und Zersetzungsprozesse im Boden auswirkten. Es zeigt sich, dass vermehrte Kohlenstoffspeicherung in der Landbiosphäre den überwiegenden Teil der atmosphärischen CO2 Anomalien erklärt. Der zweite Teil dieser Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der weltweit steigenden Nachfrage nach Bioenergie, die aufgrund des flächenintensiven Anbaus von Biomasse zur wichtigsten Triebkraft für zukünftige Landnutzungsänderungen werden könnte. Aus der Kombination von Vegetationsmodellierung und räumlichen Datenanalysen werden globale Bioenergiepotentiale unter Berücksichtigung verschiedener Nachhaltigkeitsanforderungen bestimmt und mögliche ökologische Auswirkungen des großräumigen Anbaus von Energiepflanzen abgeschätzt. Im Jahr 2050 könnten demnach 15-25% des weltweiten Energiebedarfs durch Bioenergie abgedeckt werden. Dafür müssten allerdings natürliche Ökosysteme in großem Umfang in Agrarland umgewandelt werden. / Human activities, primarily the combustion of fossil fuels and the global modification of the land surface, are transforming the Earth System at unprecedented scale. Climate change and the overexploitation of natural resources may soon overwhelm the adaptive capacities of many ecosystems and societies, which could lead to substantial losses in human well-being and political destabilization. In this context, it is the goal of this thesis to contribute to a better understanding of the most important global drivers that will determine the future of the land biosphere during this century: climate change and human land use. Based on a Dynamic Global Vegetation Model (DGVM), the first part of this thesis examines two large climatic disturbances of the terrestrial carbon cycle that were observed during the last three decades. These analyses focus on the effects of changes in temperature, precipitation and radiation on plant productivity and soil decomposition. Results indicate that increased carbon storage in the land biosphere explains the most part of the atmospheric CO2 anomaly. The second part of this thesis addresses the worldwide increasing demand for bioenergy that may become the most important driver of future land use change due to the large area requirements of biomass cultivation. A combination of vegetation modeling and spatial data analyses is used to assess global bioenergy potentials that consider various sustainability requirements for food security, biodiversity protection and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and to evaluate the environmental impacts of large-scale energy crop cultivation. The results indicate that bioenergy may provide between 15 and 25% of the global energy demand in 2050. Exploiting these potentials, however, requires the conversion of large amounts of natural vegetation into agricultural land affecting a large number of ecosystems already fragmented and degraded by land use change.

Eine der drängendsten Fragen des 21. Jahrhunderts ist die Sicherstellung der Ernährung einer wachsenden Weltbevölkerung unter Berücksichtigung zukünftiger klimatischer und umweltpolitischer Aspekte. In dieser Doktorarbeit werden die wichtigsten, für eine höhere Nahrungsmittelproduktion erforderlichen Prozesse, wie Intensivierung, Flächenausdehnung und Handel, sowie deren Interaktionen mit der Umwelt näher untersucht. Diese Prozesse fließen in das globale, ökonomische Landnutzungsmodell MAgPIE ("Model of Agricultural Production and its Impact on the Environment") ein. Das Modell simuliert räumlich expliziten Landnutzungswandel und untersucht damit verbundene Vorgänge und Einflüsse, wie die landwirtschaftliche Produktion, internationaler Handel, Produktionskosten, Emissionen und Wassermangel. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen die Bedeutung des Wechselspiels zwischen Intensivierung und Flächenausdehnung. Regionen, wie Afrika, der Mittlere Osten, Südasien und China benötigen hohe Investitionen in technischen Fortschritt um der wachsenden Nachfrage standzuhalten. Zunehmende Handelsliberalisierung reduziert das Bedürfnis zur Produktivitätssteigerung mit Ausnahme von Lateinamerika, wo aufgrund komparativer Vorteile der Landwirtschaft höhere Produktivitätssteigerungen und stärkere Flächenausdehnungen beobachtet werden. Bezüglich drohenden Wassermangels hat eine Handelsöffnung in den meisten Fällen positive Auswirkungen, da wasserarme Regionen aufgrund vermehrter Importe Wasser sparen können. Dies trifft jedoch nicht auf Australien, Japan und Teile Zentralasiens zu, die durch erhöhte Exporte ihre knappen Wasserressourcen stärker beanspruchen. Die Einbindung von Regeln zum Waldschutz in einen globalen Emissionshandel könnte weitere Entwaldung verhindern. Gleichermaßen würde ein geringerer Konsum von tierischen Produkten in entwickelten Ländern zu einer geringeren Ausbeutung der Wasserressourcen in wasserknappen Gebieten führen. / One of the most prevailing questions in the 21st century is how to provide enough food for a growing population under increasing environmental and climatic constraints. In this thesis, I will examine the most important processes behind higher food production, like intensification, cropland expansion, and international trade, and its interaction with the environment. The processes are implemented in the global economic land use model MAgPIE ("Model of Agricultural Production and its Impact on the Environment"), which simulates spatially-explicit land use and land use change. Moreover, it examines procedures related to agricultural production, trade, production costs, greenhouse gas emissions, and water scarcity. Results of the thesis reveal the importance of the interplay between intensification and cropland expansion. Countries in Africa, the Middle East and South and East Asia require high investments in technological change to cope with future demand. Trade liberalisation lowers required yield improvements but leads to additional deforestation, especially in Latin America due to comparative advantages in agriculture. In terms of water scarcity, an opening of trade has foremost positive implications since water-scarce regions can save water through imports. This does not hold for Australia, Japan, and Central Asia, which additionally strain their water resources due to higher exports. Appropriate policies on international level can diminish the impact on environment and climate. The inclusion of avoided deforestation into a global emission trading scheme would be able to prevent deforestation. Similarly, policies reducing the consumption of animal products in developed countries would lower the pressure on water resources in water-scarce regions.

Biomasseplantagen und Aufforstung zur terrestrischen Kohlenstoffdioxid-Entfernung werden derzeit als Möglichkeit diskutiert um dem anthropogenen Treibhauseffekt entgegenzuwirken. Für die Bewertung solcher Maßnahmen ist ein umfassendes Verständnis ihrer Nachhaltigkeit und möglichen Konsequenzen erforderlich. In dieser Arbeit werden biogeochemische und hydrologische Auswirkungen von Biomasseplantagen und Aufforstung quantitativ und im Kontext der Planetarischen Grenzen (PG) analysiert. Simulationen mit einem globalen Vegetationsmodell zeigen, dass die Auswirkungen von Biomasseplantagen auf die Biosphäre nicht zu vernachlässigen sind und die der historischen landwirtschaftlichen Bodennutzung noch überschreiten können. Außerdem werden Szenarien zur räumlichen Verteilung von Biomasseplantagen unter Berücksichtigung von regionalen und globalen PG für biogeochemische Flüsse, Intaktheit der Biosphäre, Landnutzungswandel und Süßwassernutzung evaluiert. Unter Einhaltung regionaler PG können nur marginale Potentiale erzielt werden. Unter kompletter Ausnutzung des Risikobereichs könnten 1.4-6.9 GtC/a entzogen werden, abhängig von Biomasseverwertungs- und Kohlenstoffspeicherungseffizienzen. Die Relevanz von koevolutionärer Dynamik zwischen dem Kohlenstoffkreislauf und gesellschaftlichem Eingreifen wird mit einem konzeptionellen Modellierungsansatz im Kontext der PG aufgezeigt. Eine Fokussierung auf das Klimaproblem ohne die ganzheitliche Berücksichtigung von erdsystemischen Interaktionen kann ungewollte Überschreitung anderer PG zur Folge haben. Die Kombination von Bevölkerungswachstum und Nahrungsmittelbedarf mit der Minimierung von Kohlenstoff- und Biodiversitätsverlusten zeigt Möglichkeiten und Grenzen für terrestrische Kohlenstoffspeicherung auf. Räumliche Umverteilung in hochproduktive Regionen sowie substantielle landwirtschaftliche Produktivitätssteigerungen ermöglichen die Ernährung von 9 Milliarden Menschen sowie ein Kohlenstoffspeicherungspotential von bis zu 98 GtC. / Terrestrial carbon dioxide removal (tCDR) via afforestation or biomass plantations are discussed as options to counteract anthropogenic global warming. Therefore, it is important to understand sustainability limits and implications of tCDR in the context of Earth system dynamics. This thesis provides a model based assessment of biogeochemical and hydrological side-effects of biomass plantations and afforestation in the context of planetary boundaries (PBs), delimiting a safe operating space for humanity. Simulations with a global vegetation model indicate considerable biogeochemical and hydrological consequences of biomass plantations which are even larger than those of historical agricultural land use. Further, land use scenarios of biomass plantations are developed with a multi-objective optimisation model considering the PBs for biogeochemical flows, biosphere integrity, land system change and freshwater use. Respecting PBs yields almost zero tCDR potential. The transgression of PBs into a zone of increasing risk of feedbacks at the planetary scale can provide considerable tCDR potentials of 1.4-6.9 GtC/a, depending on efficiency of biomass conversion and carbon capture and storage. The importance of co-evolutionary dynamics of the Earth''s carbon cycle and societal interventions through tCDR is demonstrated with a conceptual modelling approach in the context of carbon-related PBs. A focus on climate change without an integrated trade-off assessment may lead to navigating the Earth system out of the safe operating space due to collateral transgression of other PBs. Integrating population growth and food demand while minimising carbon and biodiversity loss demonstrates opportunities and limitations for tCDR. Substantial improvements of crop and livestock productivities and the displacement of agricultural production into regions of high productivity yield sustainable terrestrial carbon sequestration potentials of up to 98 GtC while feeding 9 billion people.