Estudos anteriores mostraram evidências de que crianças bilíngues alcançam a consciência metalinguística, maturação cerebral esperada em torno de doze anos de idade, precocemente, em comparação com crianças monolíngues. A consciência metalinguística está ligada à capacidade de refletir sobre a língua, sobre de que maneira ela é usada, sendo importante ressaltar a distinção existente entre consciência metalinguística e habilidade linguística, pois a consciência metalinguística exige uma demanda cognitiva maior (Bialystok, 2001; CARLISLE; BEEMAN; HULL; DAVIS, AND SPHARIM; 1999; Ringbom, 1987; Cenoz & Valencia, 1994; Lasagabaster, 1997, apud Jessner 2006). Contudo, cabe ressaltar que tais evidências partem de estudos envolvendo grupos de bilíngues imigrantes, ou grupos que possuem grande exposição à língua estrangeira em ambiente escolar ou na comunidade em que estão inseridos. O objetivo geral do estudo relatado nesta dissertação foi verificar a existência de uma vantagem bilíngue no caso de um grupo diferente de participantes, formado por crianças que são bilíngues aditivos, ou seja, que estão se tornando bilíngues a partir da exposição à segunda lingua, no caso, inglês, em uma escola com currículo bilíngue. A amostra foi composta por 42 crianças, de 7 e 8 anos de idade, sendo que o grupo de bilíngues (inglês/português) possui exposição à segunda língua na escola por um total de 10h semanais. Foram utilizados dois testes experimentais que exigem alto controle de atenção: Teste de Arbitrariedade da Língua, adaptado do estudo de Eviatar & Ibrahim (2000) e de Piaget (1929); e Teste de Substituição de Símbolos, baseado em Ben-Zeev (1977). Além disso, foi verificada a necessidade de se utilizar ainda um Teste de Proficiência Leitora em Língua Materna, a fim de verificar possíveis diferencas em termos de proficiência leitora em língua materna entre os dois grupos, principalmente pelo fato de os testes citados anteriormente terem sido aplicados em português. Não foi verificada diferença entre os grupos na análise dos resultados dos Testes de Arbitrariedade da Língua e Substituição de Símbolos. Foi encontrada, entretanto, diferença significativa entre os grupos no Teste de Proficiência Leitora em Língua Materna, mostrando um melhor desempenho dos participantes bilíngues. Os resultados encontrados são discutidos traçando uma comparação aos resultados já relatados na literatura, no que diz respeito ao grau de bilinguismo, tempo de exposição à segunda língua, trazendo evidências de que estar em contato a dois idiomas simultaneamente não acarreta desvantagens aos bilingues na aquisição da habilidade de leitura na língua materna. / Previous studies have shown evidence that bilingual children reach metalinguistic awareness, brain maturity, before the expected age of twelve, which is earlier in comparison to monolingual children. Metalinguistic awareness is linked to the ability to reflect on the language and how it is used. It is important to emphasize the distinction between metalinguistic awareness and linguistic skills, as the metalinguistic requires a greater cognitive demand (Bialystok, 2001; CARLISLE; Beeman, HULL, DAVIS, AND SPHARIM; 1999; Ringbom, 1987; Cenoz & Valencia, 1994; Lasagabaster, 1997, apud Jessner 2006). This evidence involves groups of bilingual immigrants, or groups that have high exposure to foreign language in a school or community where they live. The overall objective of this study is to verify whether a bilingual advantage exists among a different group of participates, additive bilinguals. They have become bilingual from exposure to a second language through a school with a bilingual curriculum. The sample comprised of 42 children, around the age of 7 and 8 years old. The group of bilingual (English / Portuguese) children are exposed to a second language at school for a total of 10 hours per week. In this study we used two experimental tests in which both required high attention control. The Language Arbitrariness Task, that comes from the original study of Eviatar & Ibrahim (2000) and Piaget (1929), and the Symbol Substitution Task, based on the work of Ben-Zeev (1977). In order to verify possible differences in terms of reading proficiency between the two groups there was a need to use a Reading Proficiency Test in the Mother Tongue Language, mainly because the tests have been applied in Portuguese. There were no differences between the groups in the analysis results of the Language Arbitrariness Task and Language Symbol Substitution Task. However, we found significant differences between groups on the Test of Reading Proficiency in Mother Tongue Language, showing a better performance of bilingual participants. The results are discussed comparing the information already reported in the literature regarding the degree of bilingualism and the time of exposure to second the language, providing evidence that being in contact with two languages simultaneously carries no disadvantages to the acquisition of bilingual reading ability in mother tongue language.

Orientador: Matilde Virginia Ricardi Scaramucci / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Estudo da Linguagem / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-12T19:15:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Costa_LenyPereira_M.pdf: 3097039 bytes, checksum: a016ffb55209e74ff7643ab242afcb9b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008 / Resumo: Tem sido crescente, não só no contexto nacional como em nível mundial, o interesse pelo ensino de línguas estrangeiras, marcadamente o inglês, sendo que o segmento que vem apresentando maior crescimento é o de língua estrangeira para crianças de 6 a 12 anos (REA-DICKENS e RIXON, 1997). No Brasil, apesar de facultativo no Ensino Fundamental I, o ensino de língua inglesa já faz parte do currículo da grande maioria das escolas particulares e algumas públicas, dependendo de iniciativas municipais, não havendo diretrizes oficiais que possam orientá-lo. Observamos que o crescimento, nesse contexto, tem ocorrido de forma desordenada, apresentando problemas de diversas naturezas que contribuem para a comprovada ineficiência desse setor (ROCHA, 2006; COSTA, 2007). Nesse cenário, inúmeras escolas particulares, a título de apresentar referências de progresso de aprendizagem do jovem aprendiz no Ensino Fundamental I, estão fazendo uso de um exame externo de proficiência em língua inglesa, mais especificamente o YLE - Young Learners Exam, elaborado pela Universidade de Cambridge (UCLES - University of Cambridge Local Exams Syndicate). Consideramos que exames não são neutros, tornando-se, dessa forma, fortes instrumentos de política lingüística com influências no processo de ensino e aprendizagem, afetando a vidas das pessoas, determinando e definindo o tipo de conhecimento e comportamento esperado daqueles que o prestam (SCARAMUCCI, 2004; SHOHAMY, 2004). Partindo dessa premissa, realizamos uma análise dos objetivos e do construto norteador do exame YLE, tecendo considerações sobre as possíveis consequências de seu uso como forma de avaliação no Ensino Fundamental I na educação e na sociedade. Constatamos que o exame se mostra inadequado para uso nesse contexto específico por não estar em consonância com as concepções e objetivos conforme referenciais oficialmente estabelecidos para o Ensino Básico, como um todo, e privilegiados, neste estudo, como desejáveis para nortear um processo de ensino e aprendizagem com maiores chances de sucesso. Nessa perspectiva, consideramos que um exame deve orientar-se para a construção de capacidades e conhecimentos específicos na língua-alvo, visando à formação cidadã e protagonista, sob perspectivas socioculturalmente situadas, críticas e transformadoras (ROCHA, 2006, entre outros). Entendemos, portanto, que, uma vez constatado um forte distanciamento entre o construto orientador do exame em questão e as vertentes e objetivos estabelecidos para o ensino e para situações de avaliação em LE para crianças, não consideramos que uso do YLE possa contribuir para que o ensino de língua inglesa apresente resultados mais efetivos no contexto nacional, sob perspectivas da formação integral e crítica do aluno / Abstract: There has been a notable increase in the interest for foreign languages all over the world. The teaching of English as a foreign language to children from 6 to 12 years of age represents the segment that has grown the most in the late years (REA- DICKENS and RIXON, 1997). Even though the teaching of English in the Elementary School in Brazil is not mandatory, most private schools have already included it in their curriculum. Different kinds of problems have contributed to the proven inefficiency of this sector (ROCHA, 2006; COSTA, 2007) which needs urgent measures so as to present more effective results. In this scenario, several private schools are making use of an external examination of proficiency in English, specifically the YLE - Young Learners Exam, developed by the University of Cambridge. Apparently, the results of this exam are being used as reference of the progress obtained by the young students in the first years of the Elementary School. We believe that, in general, examinations are not neutral, and may become powerful instruments influencing linguistic policies, affecting not only the teaching and learning process, but also people's lives, determining and defining the type of knowledge and the expected behavior of those involved in the process (SCARAMUCCI, 2004; SHOHAMY, 2004). Based on this premise, we considered it would be important to conduct an analysis in order to investigate the objectives and construct underlying the YLE exam, considering the possible consequences of its use as a form of assessment in the Elementary School. This study shows that the examination is not adequate to be used in this specific context since it is not in line with the concepts and goals we consider appropriate to guide such process. The theoretical guidelines in which we are based upon are officially established for the Basic Education in Brazil. In this aspect, we assume that both teaching and assessment in the regular school should be based on a socio-interactional perspective, aiming at building abilities and specific knowledge in the target language in a socio-cultural perspective (ROCHA, 2006, among others) so as to contribute to the overall growth of the students through English. Therefore, we consider that the use of the YLE specifically as a means of assessing the students' learning progress in the Elementary Schools in Brazil is inadequate as it would not be able to promote the desired and necessary changes in order to achieve better results in the teaching and learning process in the Elementary Schools / Mestrado / Lingua Estrangeira / Mestre em Linguística Aplicada

The reasons for incorporating literature in foreign language classrooms range from increased language proficiency and gaining cultural experience to increasing literary knowledge. In Swedish upper-secondary school, literature inclusion is advocated by the course curriculum, but with few specifics as to how teachers should approach it. This study investigates how teachers approach literature teaching, what their ideals for their teaching are, and what difficulties they experience when teaching. These questions were addressed in semi-structured interviews with seven upper-secondary school teachers. The data was analyzed using Content Analysis. The results show that the teachers viewed the role of literature as a way to enhance students’ social and cultural awareness, as well as their language proficiency. The teachers emphasized maintaining and cultivating students’ interests by choosing literature that contain themes relatable and interesting to students, as well as by enthusing students when introducing the texts. When working with the texts the most common assignments and exercises were based on literary analysis and subjective student reflection. The biggest constraint perceived by the teachers were unmotivated and uninterested students. A possible conclusion to be drawn from the research is that it is increasingly important for teachers to connect to students’ needs and interests when incorporating literature. A suggestion for further research is therefore to investigate students’ perceptions and experiences with literature in English class. In addition, the efficiency of literature teaching approaches needs to be researched, as this area is fairly unexplored.

This study is both quantitative and qualitative in nature. In order to support or discard the hypothesis that high-functioning, autistic upper secondary school students speak more freely in English than in their native language Swedish, an experiment with a narrative format was conducted with students both within and without Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Measurements of lexical density, hesitations and long pauses in the narrative were applied to assess the quality of produced speech. A questionnaire survey for teachers of this age category of students was also carried out. The analyses of the results are primarily quantitative, but a portion of the questionnaire is also thematically analysed. The study shows that there is initial support for the hypothesis. / Denna studie är båda kvantitativ och kvalitativ i sin natur. För att stödja eller förkasta hypotesen att högfungerande, autistiska gymnasieelever talar engelska mer obehindrat än deras modersmål svenska, genomfördes ett experiment med ett berättande format med studenter både inom och utanför Autismspektrumtillstånd (AST). Mått på lexikalisk täthet, tvekan och långa pauser i berättandet användes för att utvärdera kvalitén av producerat tal. En enkätundersökning för lärare av denna ålderskategori av elever genomfördes också. Analyserna av resultaten är primärt kvantitativa, men en del av enkäten är också tematiskt analyserad. Studien visar att det föreligger ett initialt stöd för hypotesen.

The aim of this comparative study is to investigate language proficiency in English among Swedes and the Finnish-speaking population living in Sweden, henceforth referred to as Sweden Finns. The main issue is to discover to what extent Sweden Finns show similarity and how they differ from Swedes regarding their proficiency in English, concerning grammar and vocabulary. Through a proficiency test, this essay intends to compare and discover any possible tendencies among male and female monolingual and bilingual participants.      Gender issues are rather unexplored in research on bilingualism. Sex, or gender, as a variable has received a limited amount of attention compared with other factors of individual variation, such as age or language learning strategies in the field of SLA.      The results of the statistical analysis of the data indicate that results are varied, and therefore confirm previous results. Sweden Finns score higher as a group on the test than Swedes, but male Swedish participants gave the most correct answers on all questions, followed by female Sweden Finns, then male Sweden Finns and ultimately female Swedes. Interesting, but not statistically significant, findings suggest that the students participating in this study have a good vocabulary size and are acquainted with high-frequency words and pronouns. Most errors were found in the parts concerning irregular verbs and synonyms. Multiple-choice questions received a higher frequency of right answers than open questions.      As the results are varied since this type of study has not been carried out before, it shows that there is a need for nuanced quantitative research in this field of study.

This essay is based on a case study that discusses students’ attitudes and beliefs about parallel language i.e. studying in two languages instead of only one. The study has been carried through by performing interviews with five students on two occasions as well as one interview with one of the educators at the department of Business Administration. It was found that students are positive towards parallel language even though it requires more time for reading and risk of losing out on content. A couple of the reasons that the students are positive about are that they expect (i) increased language proficiency and (ii) further work opportunities as a result of reading course literature in English. However, according to the educator there is little chance that reading course literature in English will affect employability. The department’s main goal is to find good textbooks. It was also revealed that even though students intend to read their textbooks they use different strategies and sometimes try to evade texts entirely. The participants were also asked to participate in a small vocabulary test with the aim of finding out if the students had acquired some of the vocabulary in their textbooks. The results showed that the students who used dictionaries extensively got the highest score, whereas those who believed that they already were proficient enough in English and did not need dictionaries that much showed very poor results.

This study examined the extramural activities, that is, what a language learner does with the target language outside of class time, in Japanese of adult beginner level foreign language learners of Japanese studying at Stockholm University, Sweden, and how these activities relate to Japanese language proficiency. The study looked at both extramural activities and foreign language proficiency from a holistic and quantitative perspective. The participants' extramural activities were measured through self-reported data in a questionnaire, and several measures; a cloze test, earlier grades, and self-evaluations; were triangulated and used to provide an adequate measure of general Japanese language proficiency.    The results indicate that extramural activities which provide a foreign language learner with enough time for thorough processing of input and support through the usage of several cooperating modalities seem to have a positive effect on general foreign language acquisition.

Cette recherche a pour objet l'étude de la contribution des disciplines à l'évolution des collégiens dans leur maîtrise de la langue française. La position de la France dans les évaluations PISA et les nouvelles préoccupations de l'Union Européenne en matière d'égalité des chances amènent notre système scolaire à reconsidérer la place du langage dans les enseignements. Par ailleurs, l'omniprésence du terme « langage » dans la nouvelle version du socle et la place que lui accordent les nouveaux programmes du collège depuis la rentrée 2016, confirment cette tendance. Mais tous les élèves ne développent pas les mêmes capacités ni le même rythme d’apprentissage : certains rencontrent des difficultés scolaires, d'autres, des difficultés linguistiques. Qu'entend-t-on par « maîtrise de la langue » au collège ? Quelle est la nature des obstacles rencontrés par certains collégiens ? La relation didactique qui s'établit entre élèves et enseignants dans le cadre d'activités langagières visant la maîtrise de la langue est-elle strictement spécifique à une discipline et un type de classe ou bien tisse-t-elle des formes d'ordre générique qui relèveraient du didactique ordinaire ? Nous avons analysé et comparé les interactions verbales d'un corpus de dix sept séances afin d'observer les difficultés des élèves, en situation de classe. Nous pensons que l'enseignement de la maîtrise de la langue française exige de l'élève une compréhension, à la fois, de la langue de scolarisation et du langage des disciplines. Nous pensons, par ailleurs, que l'élève doit être considéré de manière spécifique et non générique de manière à ce que les pistes proposées soient adaptées à tous. / This research deals with the way learning different school subjects is likely to help middle-school students with their proficiency in the French language. The place of France in PISA rankings and the new concerns of the European Union regarding equal opportunities have lead our school system to reconsider the position of language in the learning process. The numerous occurrences of the word “language” in the newest set of common core skills defined by the French Ministry of Education, along with its prominence in the new middle school curriculum, show how deep that concern is at the present time.But all students do not display equivalent skills, nor an ability to learn at the same pace – some of them will face difficulties, others will deal with language-related problems.What is meant by “Language proficiency” at a middle school level? What type of hurdles will be met by students in their middle school years? Is the educational relationship established between teachers and students in language activities aimed at improving language proficiency strictly relevant for a specific type of subject and school level, or does it induce generic forms common to every educational approach?We analysed and compared verbal interactions in a study pool of seventeen classroom sessions in order to examine the difficulties met by the students. We argue that teaching French language proficiency requires the students to understand both a schooling language and a subject language. We also argue that students must be considered in a specific, non-generic manner, so that the results of our research may be adapted to each and every one of them.

Magister Artium - MA / In the majority of the schools in South Africa (SA), learners commence education in English. This English milieu poses a considerable challenge for English second-language speakers. In an attempt to bridge the gap between English as the main medium of instruction and the nine indigenous languages of the country and assist with the implementation of mother-tongue based bilingual education, this study focuses on the cross-validation of a monolingual English test used in the assessment of multilingual or bilingual learners in the South African context. This test, namely the Woodcock Muñoz Language Survey (WMLS), is extensively used in the United States in Additive Bilingual Education in the country. The present study is a substudy of a broader study, in which the original WMLS (American-English version) was adapted into SA English and Xhosa. For this specific sub-study, the researcher was interested in investigating the scalar equivalence of the adapted English version of the Verbal Analogies (VA) subscale of the WMLS across English first-language speakers and Xhosa first-language speakers. This was achieved by utilising differential item functioning (DIF) and construct bias statistical techniques. The Mantel-Haenszel DIF detection method was employed to detect DIF, while construct equivalence was examined by means of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) utilising an a priori two-factor structure. The Tucker's phi coefficient was used to assess the congruence of the construct across the two language groups / South Africa

Magister Psychologiae - MPsych / In many countries defined by multilingualism, language has been identified as a great influence during psychological and educational testing. In South Africa (SA), factors such as changes in policies and social inequalities also influence testing. Literature supports the translation and adaptation of tests used in such contexts in order to avoid bias caused by language. Different language versions of tests then need to be evaluated for equivalence, to ensure that scores across the different language versions have the same meaning. Differences in dialects may also impact on the results of such tests.Results of an isiXhosa version of the Woodcock Muñoz Language Survey (WMLS),which is a test used to measure isiXhosa learners’ language proficiency, show significant mean score differences on the test scores across rural and urban firstlanguage speakers of isiXhosa. These results have indicated a possible problem regarding rural and urban dialects during testing. This thesis evaluates the item bias of the subtests in this version of the WMLS across rural and urban isiXhosa learners. This was accomplished by evaluating the reliability and item characteristics for group differences, and by evaluating differential item functioning across these two groups on the subtests of the WMLS. The sample in this thesis comprised of 260 isiXhosa learners from the Eastern Cape Province in grade 6 and grade 7, both males and females. This sample was collected in two phases: (1) secondary data from 49 rural and 133 urban isiXhosa learners was included in the sample; (2) adding to the secondary data, a primary data collection from 78 rural isiXhosa learners was made to equalise the two sample groups. All ethical considerations were included in this thesis. The results were surprising and unexpected. Two of the subtests in the WMLS showed evidence of scalar equivalence as only a few items were identified as problematic. However, two of the subtests demonstrated more problematic items. These results mean that two subtests of the WMLS that demonstrated evidence of scalar equivalence can be used to measure the construct of language proficiency, while the other two sub-tests that showed problematic items need to be further investigated, as the responses given by learners on these items seem to be determined by their group membership and not by their ability.