La résistance partielle aux agents pathogènes représente une source importante pour l'amélioration des plantes. Cependant les mécanismes moléculaires sous-jacents à ce type de résistance sont encore mal connus. L'interaction entre le riz et le champignon Magnaporthe oryzae est un modèle de choix pour ce type d'analyse, de nombreuses ressources génétiques et outils d'analyse fonctionnelle étant disponibles. Chez le riz, hormis le gène Pi21 qui contrôle la résistance partielle, aucune information biologique et fonctionnelle ne permet d'expliquer cette forme de résistance. En amont de ce travail de thèse, le phénomène de défense préformée a récemment été identifié ; il est défini par la corrélation entre l'expression des gènes liés à la défense avant infection et la résistance partielle à M. oryzae. L'identification de régulateurs de la résistance partielle et des défenses préformées a été l'objectif de cette thèse. Deux stratégies ont été adoptées. Une étude du transcriptome visant à sélectionner et caractériser des gènes candidats sur la base de leur profil d'expression constitutive a été réalisée. Une méthode de sélection par « guilt-by-association » s'est avérée efficace pour identifier des gènes impliqués dans la résistance de la plante. Les gènes AGO18, Z-BED, HSF23 et CaMBP ont été identifiés comme des régulateurs positifs des défenses de la plante. Les gènes HSF23 et CaMBP contrôlent l'expression constitutive des gènes liés à la défense mais leur sur-expression modifie la croissance des plantes. La sur-expression des gènes Z-BED et AGO18 n'a entraîné aucune modification de la croissance de la plante mais une augmentation de la résistance à M. oryzae, sans modification apparente de l'expression des gènes de défense testés. Le gène Z-BED code pour un facteur de transcription putatif dont on peut faire l'hypothèse qu'il contrôle un ensemble encore inconnu de l'arsenal de défense. Le gène AGO18 code pour une protéine argonaute potentiellement impliquée dans l'extinction de gène via la méthylation de la chromatine. Enfin le gène OB-fold est un régulateur négatif des défenses de la plante dont les cibles, potentiellement des ARN, restent à identifier.La deuxième approche a consisté en une détection de loci contrôlant la densité de lésions causées par M. oryzae. Une zone du génome, PRM1, contrôle ce phénotype, confère une résistance à un spectre de souches relativement large, semble contrôler l'expression de gènes de défense avant et au cours de l'infection, et enfin semble ralentir la croissance du champignon avant pénétration. Cette approche sans a priori renforce l'hypothèse que l'expression des gènes de défense avant infection est associée à la résistance partielle du riz à M. oryzae.De plus amples investigations seront nécessaires pour relier les phénotypes de résistance partielle tels que l'inhibition de la croissance pré-pénétration et la densité de lésions entre eux d'une part et d'autre part à l'expression des gènes de défenses avant infection / Partial resistance to pathogens is a major source for plant breeding. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this type of resistance are still poorly understood. The interaction between rice and the fungus Magnaporthe oryzae is a model of choice for this type of analysis, many genetic and functional analysis tools being available. In rice, except for the Pi21 gene that controls partial resistance, no biological and functional information can explain this form of resistance. Prior to this thesis, the phenomenon of preformed defense has recently been identified; it is defined by the correlation between the expression of genes related to defense before infection and partial resistance to M. oryzae. Identification of partial resistance and preformed defense regulators has been the objective of this thesis. Two strategies were adopted.A transcriptome analysis to select and characterize candidate genes based on their constitutive expression pattern was performed. A method of selection by "guilt-by-association" has been effective in identifying genes involved in plant resistance. The genes AGO18, Z-BED, HSF23 and CaMBP were identified as positive regulators of plant defenses. The genes HSF23 and CaMBP control the constitutive expression of defense related genes, but their over-expression modifies plant growth. Over-expression of Z-BED and AGO18 genes does not affect plant growth but increases the resistance to M. oryzae, without apparent change in the expression of the defense genes tested. The Z-BED gene encodes for a putative transcription factor that likely controls an unknown set of the defense arsenal. The AGO18 gene encodes an Argonaute protein potentially involved in gene silencing via chromatin methylation. Finally the OB-fold gene is a negative plant defense regulator, and its hypothetical RNA targets remain to be identified.The second approach consisted of detection of loci controlling the lesions density caused by M. oryzae. A region of the genome, PRM1, controls this phenotype, confers resistance to a relatively wide range of isolates, appears to control the expression of defense genes before and during the infection, and finally seems to inhibit the growth of the fungus before penetration. This approach without a priori supports the hypothesis that the expression of defense genes before infection is associated with partial resistance of rice to M. oryzae.Further investigations are needed to link the resistance phenotypes such as partial inhibition of fungal growth pre-penetration and density of these lesions on the one hand, and the defense gene expression before infection on the other hand.

Submitted by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2016-03-24T13:54:43Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Mythali Lima Garcia - 2015.pdf: 491428 bytes, checksum: 7dd3092c147803197166317497cfaa6d (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2016-03-24T13:56:23Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Mythali Lima Garcia - 2015.pdf: 491428 bytes, checksum: 7dd3092c147803197166317497cfaa6d (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-24T13:56:23Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Mythali Lima Garcia - 2015.pdf: 491428 bytes, checksum: 7dd3092c147803197166317497cfaa6d (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-11-27 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Goiás - FAPEG / The blast caused by the fungus Magnaporthe oryzae, is a disease affecting rice significantly throughout the world. Seeking its control, fungicides have been used indiscriminately. With the need to develop alternative control methods, the uses of plant extracts have been a promising strategy for the control of phytopathogens. The objective of this study was to develop and characterize the liquid extract of Rosmarinus officinalis standardized in rosmarinic acid and evaluate its potential as resistance inducer and suppressor of leaf blast on rice crops. The standardization was initiated by characterization of plant material followed by obtaining the liquid extract by percolation method. The liquid extract was characterized as pH, viscosity, density, solids content and chromatographic profile for Thin Layer Chromatography. A method by high-performance liquid chromatography to quantify the rosmarinic acid in the liquid extract was validated. In Embrapa Rice and beans, rice seeds were sown and three concentrations of R. officinalis extract and standard of rosmarinic acid were sprayed and monitored in plants to test their respective capabilities suppression of leaf blast and inducing resistance in rice from increase enzyme activity of chitinase, β-1,3 glucanase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase, phenylalanine ammonia lyase, of phenolic compounds and salicylic acid hormone, before and after challenge with M. oryzae. All treatments reduced the severity of leaf blast in rice in more than 80%. In the absence of the pathogen from four hours, all treatments increased the expression of enzymes related to the defense of the plant, the phenolic compounds and salicylic acid hormone, except for the peroxidase. In the presence of M. oryzae, the enzymatic activity of GLU, CHI, POX, LOX, PAL, phenolic compounds and salicylic acid content increased significantly. The standardized rosemary extract in rosmarinic acid has proven to be a powerful alternative method for controlling the blast in rice and may be associated with integrated management techniques. / A brusone, causada pelo fungo Magnaporthe oryzae, é uma doença que acomete o arroz de forma expressiva em todo o mundo. Visando o seu controle, fungicidas têm sido utilizados indiscriminadamente. Com a necessidade de se desenvolver métodos alternativos de controle, a utilização de extratos vegetais tem se mostrado uma estratégia promissora para o controle de fitopatôgenos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver e caracterizar o extrato líquido de Rosmarinus officinalis padronizado em ácido rosmarínico e avaliar seu potencial como indutor de resistência e supressor da brusone foliar em cultivos de arroz. A padronização iniciou-se pela caracterização da matéria-prima vegetal seguida da obtenção do extrato líquido pelo método de percolação. O extrato líquido foi caracterizado quanto ao pH, viscosidade, densidade, teor de sólidos e perfil cromatográfico por Cromatografia em Camada Delgada. Adicionalmente foi validado um método por Cromatografia Líquida de Alta eficiência para a quantificação do ácido rosmarínico no extrato líquido. Na Embrapa arroz e feijão, sementes de arroz foram semeadas e três concentrações do extrato de R. officinalis e do padrão de ácido rosmarínico foram pulverizadas e monitoradas nas plantas para testar as suas respectivas capacidades de supressão da brusone foliar e indutora de resistência no arroz a partir do aumento da atividade enzimática de quitinase, β-1,3 glucanase, peroxidase, lipoxigenase, fenilalanina amônia-liase, dos compostos fenólicos e do hormônio ácido salicílico, antes e depois do desafio com M. oryzae. Todos os tratamentos reduziram a severidade da brusone foliar no arroz em mais de 80%. Na ausência do patógeno, a partir de 4 horas, todos os tratamentos aumentaram a expressão das enzimas relacionadas à defesa da planta, dos compostos fenólicos e do hormônio ácido salicílico, com exceção da peroxidase. Na presença de M. oryzae, a atividade enzimática de GLU, QUI, POX, LOX, PAL, os compostos fenólicos e o teor de ácido salicílico aumentaram significativamente. O extrato de alecrim padronizado em ácido rosmarínico revelou-se um potente método complementar para o controle da brusone no arroz podendo este ser associado às técnicas de manejo integrado.

Submitted by Cláudia Bueno (claudiamoura18@gmail.com) on 2016-06-02T18:09:18Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Rafaela Araújo Guimarães - 2014.pdf: 1551849 bytes, checksum: b39011c17618c122fad17d142b0288ec (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2016-06-03T12:41:12Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Rafaela Araújo Guimarães - 2014.pdf: 1551849 bytes, checksum: b39011c17618c122fad17d142b0288ec (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-03T12:41:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Rafaela Araújo Guimarães - 2014.pdf: 1551849 bytes, checksum: b39011c17618c122fad17d142b0288ec (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-08-21 / Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq / Sarocladium oryzae, the causal agent of rice sheath rot disease is described as antagonistic to rice pathogens. Rice blast is a major rice disease and is responsible for losses up to 100% in productivity. The disease control is done by integrated management, where the main practices are use of resistant cultivars and chemical control. The biocontrol agents or their metabolites may to be more practical to be including them as components in the management. The in objectives of this study a consist to evaluate of S. oryzae isolates for the morphological variability, genetics, biochemistry and antagonistic activity to rice pathogens; evaluate effect of S. oryzae filtrade on conidial germination and appressorium formation of M. oryzae; evaluate potential of conidia and filtrate S. oryzae in the suppression of leaf blast severity and quantify activity of enzymes involved in interaction M. oryzae x rice plant x S. oryzae. Isolates were characterized for color, texture, colony diameter, conidia size and hyphae thickness. In genetic studies, we used RAPD marker primers, and cerulenin production was quantified by HPLC. Antagonism in vitro was assessed by dual culture method. The effect of S. oryzae on conidial germination and appressorium formation of M. oryzae was evaluated using hydrophobic surface. Rice cultivar BRS Primavera, M. oryzae isolate (Py 10.900) and S. oryzae, isolate So 03, were utilized to study plant-pathogen-antagonist relationship. Plants were sprayed, with conidial suspension (CS), 3x105 conídios.mL-1 and culture filtrate (CF) 100% of S. oryzae, two days before inoculation with M. oryzae. S. oryzae isolates showed morphological variability, polymorphism in DNA. A majority of S. oryzae isolates (60%) ware able to produce cerulenin and over 55% were antagonistic to C. miyabeans, M. oryzae, M. albescens and T. cucumeris. The isolate So 29 showed largest inhibition zone. Filtrate of isolates So 03 and So 29 delayed conidia germination by 89.5% and inhibited appressoria formation of M. oryzae by 85%. CS reduced of leaf blast severity in 68.8% and CF in 75.5%. The enzymes β-1,3-glucanase and peroxidase exhibited maximum activity in plants sprayed with CF, when as the activity was high for SA and lipoxygenase in relation to CS treatment, compared to their respective controles, in the absence of M. oryzae. After inoculation with M. oryzae, the lipoxygenase and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activity in both treatments CF and CS, showed differences compared to controls (plants inoculated with M. oryzae and water only). S. oryzae presented variability to characteristics evaluated and showed potential antagonism against to rice pathogens. Changes in enzyme activity indicate their role in induction resistance in plants in M. oryzae x rice x S. oryzae interaction. / Sarocladium oryzae, agente causal da podridão da bainha do arroz, é descrito como antagonista a patógenos de arroz. A brusone, principal doença do arroz é responsável por perdas de até 100% na produtividade. O controle desta doença é feito pelo uso do manejo integrado, onde as principais práticas são o uso de cultivares resistentes e o controle químico. O uso de agentes de biocontrole ou seus metabólitos pode ser mais uma prática a ser inserida ao manejo. Os objetivos deste estudo foram: avaliar isolados de S. oryzae quanto à variabilidade morfológica, genética, bioquímica e quanto à atividade antagônica aos patógenos de arroz; avaliar o efeito do filtrado de S. oryzae na germinação de conídios e na formação de apressórios de M. oryzae; avaliar o potencial da suspensão de conídios e do filtrado de S. oryzae na supressão da brusone foliar e quantificar a atividade das enzimas relacionadas à patogênese e do fitohormônio ácido salicílico (AS) envolvidos na interação M. oryzae x arroz x S. oryzae. Os isolados foram caracterizados quanto à cor, textura, diâmetro da colônia, tamanho dos conídios e espessura das hifas. No estudo genético, utilizou-se marcador RAPD (Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA) e a produção de cerulenina foi quantificada em HPLC. O antagonismo in vitro foi avaliado pelo método da cultura pareada. A ação de S. oryzae sobre a germinação de conídios e a formação de apressórios de M. oryzae foi avaliada em superfície hidrofóbica. Plantas de arroz da cultivar BRS Primavera, um isolado virulento de M. oryzae (Py 10.900) e o isolado So 03 de S. oryzae, foram avaliados no estabelecimento das relações planta-patógeno-antagonista. As plantas foram pulverizadas com S. oryzae, na forma de suspensão de conídios (SC) - 3x105 conídios.mL-1 e filtrado (FI) 100% concentrado, dois dias antes da inoculação com M. oryzae. Os isolados de S. oryzae apresentaram variabilidade morfológica e polimorfismo no DNA. A maioria dos isolados de S. oryzae (60%) foi capaz de produzir cerulenina e mais de 55% foram antagônicos a C. miyabeans, M. oryzae, M. albescens e T. cucumeris. O isolado So 29 apresentou o maior halo de inibição no pareamento. Os filtrados dos isolados So 03 e So 29 retardaram a germinação dos conídios em 89,5% e inibiram a formação dos apressórios de M. oryzae em 85%. A SC reduziu a severidade da brusone foliar em 68,8% e o FI em 75,5%. Os maiores valores de atividade enzimática específica em relação ao controle antes da presença de M. oryzae foram para β-1,3-glucanase e peroxidase no tratamento com FI, enquanto que, na SC foram lipoxigenase e AS. Depois da presença de M. oryzae a lipoxigenase e a fenilalanina-amônia liase apresentaram atividade tanto com FI quanto na SC, diferindo dos controles (plantas inoculadas com água e com M. oryzae, somente). S. oryzae apresentou variabilidade para as características avaliadas e potencial antagônico aos patógenos do arroz. As alterações na atividade enzimática indicam a indução de resistência em plantas na interação M. oryzae x arroz x S. oryzae.

Nous avons étudié la voie MAPK Mps1/Slt2 du champignon pathogène du riz Magnaporthe Oryzae. Chez la levure, Slt2 active les facteurs de transcription Rlm1, Swi4 et Swi6. Nous avons identifié le gène orthologue de ScSWI4 chez M. oryzae et étudié les rôles de Mps1, Rlm1, Swi4 et Swi6 en comparant les phénotypes de leurs mutants nuls. Δmps1, Δswi4, Δswi6 ont le même défaut de mélanisation, tandis que Δmps1 et Δrlm1 sont déficients pour la sporulation. L'absence d'hyphes aériens et d'hydrophobicité du mycélium sont des phénotypes spécifiques de Δmps1, tandis qu'une réduction de croissance est associée spécifiquement à Δswi4 et Δswi6. Aucun de ces mutants ne présente une hypersensibilité aux enzymes de dégradation de la paroi (EDPs) et aux inhibiteurs de la paroi (aculeacine A, nikkomycin Z, calcofluor white : CFW). La pathogénie de Δswi4 est réduite, tandis que celle de Δswi6 est similaire à la souche sauvage. Δmps1 et Δrlm1 sont non pathogènes. La transcriptomique comparative de la souche sauvage, Δmps1, Δrlm1 et Δswi4 montre qu'il n'existe qu'un petit nombre de gènes sur- ou sous- exprimés chez ces mutants, le nombre maximal étant observée entre Δmps1 et Δswi4. Le gène AGS1 encodant l'alpha-1, 3-glucane synthase, une cible supposée de Mps1, n'est ni sur- ni sous-exprimé chez ces mutants. La souche sauvage et Δmps1 ont la même sensibilité aux EDPs et au CFW à pH6. Cependant, à pH5, la souche sauvage devient résistante aux EDPs et au CFW à pH6. Cependant, à pH5, la souche sauvage devient résistante aux EDPs et au CFW, tandis que Δmps1 perd cette résistance, suggérant qu'elle nécessite Mps1. Notre étude montre que la voie MAPK Mps1 joue un rôle important dans plusieurs processus biologiques de M. oryzae et précise quels sont les cibles / We have studied the Mps1/Slt2 MAPK signalling pathway in the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. In yeast, Slt2 activates the transcription factors Rlm1, Swi4 and Swi6. We have identified the M. oryzae gene orthologous to ScSWI4 and studied the roles of Mps1, Rlm1, Swi4 and Swi6 in M. oryzae by comparing the phenotypes of their null mutants. Δmps1, Δswi4, Δswi6 displayed the same defects in melanisation, while Δmps1 and Δrlm1 are defective in sporulation. Loss of aerial hyphae formation and mycelium hydrophobicity are phenotypes specific of Δmps1, while reduced growth is a specific phenotype of Δswi4 and Δswi6. None of these mutants displayed an increased sensitivity against cell wall degrading enzymes (CWDEs) and cell wall inhibitors (aculeacine A, nikkomycin Z, calcofluor white : CFW). Pathogenicity was reduced in Δswi4, while Δswi6 was as pathogenic as WT. Δmps1 and Δrlm1 were non-pathogenic. Comparative transcriptomic of WT, Δmps1, Δrlm1 and Δswi4 highlighted only a limited number of genes up- and down-regulated in these mutants, with the largest number observed between Δmps1 and Δswi4. The alpha-1,3-glucan synthase encoding gene AGS1, a suggested Mps1 target, was not up- nor down-regulated in these mutants. WT and Δmps1 have a similar sensitivity to CWDE and CFW at pH6. However, at pH5, WT displays a resistance to CWDEs and CFW, while Δmps1 loses this pH5 induced resistance, suggesting it requires the Mps1 pathway. This work shows that Mps1 MAPK pathway has an important role in different M. oryzae biological processes and provides new insights on its transcriptional targets

Les maladies des plantes causées par les champignons sont un problème majeur en agriculture. Pour les contrôler, les gènes de résistance (R) qui permettent de développer des variétés de plantes résistantes sont des éléments clés. La majorité des gènes R codent pour des protéines NLRs caractérisées par la présence d'un domaine de liaison aux nucléotides (NB-ARC) et un domaine de répétitions riches en leucines (LRR). Ces protéines agissent comme des récepteurs immunitaires intracellulaires et reconnaissent des facteurs de virulence des agents pathogènes appelés effecteurs. Les champignons phytopathogènes possèdent de vastes répertoires d'effecteurs qui contiennent centaines de protéines sécrétés, de petites tailles et sans similarités de séquence entre elles.La première question abordée dans ma thèse concerne l’origine de l'immense diversité des effecteurs fongiques. Une analyse structurale a identifié une famille d’effecteurs de séquences différentes mais qui possèdent une structure conservée. Cette famille a été appelée MAX-effectors (Magnaporthe Avrs and ToxB like) et elle est particulièrement importante chez Magnaporthe oryzae, l'agent causal de la pyriculariose du riz. Par des analyses d'expression, j'ai confirmé que la majorité des effecteurs MAX de M. oryzae sont spécifiquement exprimés durant la phase précoce de l'infection, suggérant une fonction importante durant la colonisation de la plante. Les effecteurs MAX constituent la première famille d'effecteurs fongiques définis par leur structure. Cette étude apporte donc de nouvelles pistes pour l'identification d'effecteurs chez les champignons et contribue à une meilleure compréhension de l'évolution des effecteurs. En effet, le scénario observé chez les effecteurs MAX suggère que beaucoup d’effecteurs fongiques appartiennent à un nombre restreint de familles d'effecteurs définies par leur structure. La seconde question que j’ai abordée durant ma thèse est le mécanisme moléculaire de la reconnaissance des effecteurs par les NLRs. J'ai abordé cette question en étudiant la reconnaissance de l'effecteur AVR-Pia par le couple de NLRs RGA4/RGA5. Des travaux précédents ont montré que RGA5 agit comme récepteur et se lie directement à AVR-Pia tandis que RGA4 agit comme élément de signalisation constitutivement actif, qui, en absence de l’agent pathogène, est réprimé par RGA5. Un domaine de RGA5, normalement absent chez les protéines NLR et similaire à la chaperonne du cuivre ATX1 (domaine RATX1), interagit physiquement avec AVR-Pia. Il a été suggéré que ce domaine RATX1 puisse agir comme un leurre de la cible de virulence d’AVR-Pia. Ce leurre, intégré dans la structure de RGA5, permettrait de « piéger » l’effecteur par interaction directe et jouerait donc un rôle crucial dans sa reconnaissance spécifique. Grâce à une analyse structurale détaillée d’AVR-Pia j’ai pu confirmer le rôle central de l'interaction AVR-Pia-RATX1 dans la reconnaissance de cet effecteur ce qui conforte le modèle du « leurre intégré ». De plus, j’ai caractérisé la surface d'interaction avec laquelle AVR-Pia lie le domaine RATX1. De plus, j'ai détecté des interactions entre AVR-Pia et d'autres parties de RGA5, indépendantes du domaine RATX1, notamment les domaines NB-ARC et LRR. Ceci a permis de développer un modèle qui explique comment la liaison d’un effecteur à un récepteur NLR comportant un leurre intégré par différentes interactions indépendantes conduit à une reconnaissance très sensible et spécifique qui est peu affectée par des mutations ponctuelles de l’effecteur. En résumé, cette étude a produit des connaissances nouvelles sur la fonction des récepteurs des plantes de type NLRs et sur leur capacité à reconnaitre des effecteurs. Ceci contribue à une meilleure compréhension du système immunitaire des plantes, ce qui est un élément important pour l’obtention de cultures durablement résistantes aux maladies / Plant diseases caused by fungi constitute a worldwide threat to food security and disease resistance (R) genes that allow to breed resistant crops are key elements for efficient disease control. The vast majority of R genes code for NLR multi domain proteins characterized by nucleotide-binding and leucine-rich repeat domains and acting as intracellular immune receptors for pathogen-secreted virulence factors termed effectors. Phytopathogenic fungi possess huge effector repertoires that are dominated by hundreds of sequence-unrelated small secreted proteins. The first question I addressed in my PhD thesis is: how is the tremendous diversity of fungal effectors generated? A structural analysis had identified the family of sequence-unrelated but structurally conserved MAX-effectors (Magnaporthe Avrs and ToxB like) that has expanded specifically in Magnaporthe oryzae the causal agent of rice blast disease. By expression analysis, I confirmed that the majority of M. oryzae MAX-effectors are expressed specifically during early infection suggesting important functions during host colonization. MAX effectors are the first structurally defined family of effectors in fungi and this study gives therefore news clues for the identification of candidate effectors in fungi and constitutes a crucial step towards a better understanding of effector evolution. In fact, the scenario observed for MAX-effectors leads to the hypothesis that the enormous number of sequence-unrelated fungal effectors belong in fact to a restricted set of structurally conserved effector families.The second question I investigated in my PhD thesis is: what are the molecular mechanisms of effector recognition by NLR immune receptors? I addressed this question by studying recognition of the M. oryzae effector AVR-Pia by the rice NLR pair RGA4/RGA5. Previous work has shown that RGA5 acts as a receptor that binds directly to AVR-Pia while RGA4 acts as a constitutively active signaling protein that is, in the absence of pathogen, repressed by RGA5. This functional interaction involves formation of an RGA4/RGA5 receptor complex. By protein-protein interaction studies, I showed that complex formation involves interactions between the RA4 and RGA5 NB-ARC and LRR domains, in addition to previously identified interactions between the coiled-coil domains. AVR-Pia recognition seems not to induce dissociation of the RGA4/RGA5 complex but a ternary RGA4/RGA5/AVR-Pia complex could also not be detected consistently. How effector recognition is translated into receptor complex activation remains therefore to be elucidated in more detail in the future. Previous work has shown that a domain of RGA5 normally not present in NLRs and related to the copper chaperone ATX1 (RATX1 domain) interacts physically with AVR-Pia and may be crucial for effector recognition. The RATX1 domain was hypothesized to mimic the true host targets of AVR-Pia leading to the development of the ‘integrated decoy’ model that states that unconventional domains in NLRs act as decoys in the recognition of effector proteins. By detailed structure-informed analysis of AVR-Pia, I could confirm the pivotal role of the AVR-Pia-RATX1 interaction for effector recognition lending important support to the integrated decoy model. In addition, I could precisely characterize the interaction surface with which AVR-Pia binds to the RGA5 RATX1 domain. Finally, I detected interactions of AVR-Pia with other parts of RGA5, in particular the NB-ARC and the LRR domains. Based on these results, I developed a model that explains how such binding to several independent sites in NLRs leads to high overall affinity and robust effector recognition that is resilient to effector mutations. Taken together, this study provides important novel insight into NLR function and effector recognition and contributes by this to a better understanding of plant immunity which is crucial for generating durable disease resistance in crops.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Plant Pathology / Barbara S. Valent / Rice blast caused by the ascomycetous fungus Magnaporthe oryzae remains a threat to global sustainable agriculture and food security. This pathogen infects staple cereal crops such as rice, wheat, barley and millets, as well as turf grasses, in a distinct way among fungal plant pathogens, which we described in the first chapter. In addition to economical importance, rice blast is a model pathosystem for difficult-to-study biotrophic fungi and fungal-plant interactions. We are studying proteins that fungi secrete inside living cells to block plant defenses and control host cell processes; these proteins are called effectors. To date mechanisms for secretion and delivery of effectors inside host cells during disease establishment remain unknown. This step is critical to ensure the successful infection. So far, the only commonality found among all unique small-secreted blast effector proteins is their accumulation in a novel in planta structure called the biotrophic-interfacial complex (BIC). Identifying effectors and understanding how they function inside rice cells are important for attaining durable disease control. In the second chapter, we presented one approach to address this challenge. We characterized four candidate effector genes that were highly expressed specifically during the rice cell invasion. Using transgenic fungi that secrete fluorescently-labeled versions of each protein allowed me to follow them during invasion in vivo by live cell imaging. These candidates show distinct secretion patterns suggesting a spatially-segregated secretion mechanism for effectors. Results revealed a BIC-located strong candidate cytoplasmic blast effector, two putative cell-to-cell movement proteins and a putative extrainvasive hyphal membrane (EIHM)-matrix protein, which has become a valuable tool for assessing successful infection sites. In the third chapter, we test if normal secretion components of filamentous fungi are involved in accumulation of effectors into BICs. We report localization studies with M. oryzae orthologs of conserved secretion machinery components to investigate secretion mechanisms for effectors showing preferential BIC accumulation and for non-BIC proteins such as BAS4. Especially bright fluorescence adjacent to BICs from Mlc1p (Myosin Light Chain, a Spitzenkörper marker), from Snc1p (a secretory vesicle marker), and from Yup1p (a putative t-SNARE endosomal protein) suggest secretion actively occurs in the BIC-associated cells. Localization of Spa2p (a polarisome marker), as a distinct spot at the tips of the bulbous invasive hyphae (IH) in planta, suggests the existence of two secretion complexes after the fungus switches growth from the polarized filamentous primary hyphae to bulbous IH. In the final chapter on future perspectives, we present some strategies towards the molecular understanding of the M. oryzae secretion mechanism during biotrophic invasion, which will lead to novel strategies for disease control.

Appressorium-mediated plant infection is a common strategy used by many plant pathogenic fungi. Understanding the underlying genetic network that controls cellular differentiation of appressorium is therefore pivotal to design durable resistance strategies for these devastating pathogens. This thesis describes four published studies, which investigate the role of septin GTPases in infection and the role of secretion during plant tissue invasion by the rice blast pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae. Appressorium development involves a series of morphogenetic changes that are tightly regulated by cell cycle checkpoints. Entry into mitosis allows differentiation of an appressorium, while penetration peg emergence appears to require progression through subsequent cell cycle checkpoints and cytokinesis. The studies presented here show that symmetry-breaking events that occur during appressorium differentiation are mediated by scaffold proteins, named septins. Septin GTPases recruit actomyosin ring components during septation and define the site of cytokinesis. They also recruit a toroidal cortical F-actin network to the appressorium pore that provides cortical rigidity to facilitate plant infection. Septins act as diffusion barriers for proteins that mediate membrane curvature necessary for penetration peg formation. Repolarization of the F-actin cytoskeleton at the appressorium pore is essential for plant penetration and is controlled by cell polarity regulators, such as Cdc42 and Chm1. Septin-mediated plant infection is regulated by NADPH oxidase (Nox) dependent generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The Nox2/NoxR complex is essential for septin organization at the appressorium pore. Septins are therefore key determinants of appressorium repolarization. I also report an investigation of fungal secretory processes during tissue invasion and present evidence that distinct pathways are involved in effector secretion by Magnaporthe oryzae. A BrefeldinA-sensitive pathway is necessary for secretion of apoplastic effectors, such as Bas4 and Slp1, while a BrefeldinA-insensitive pathway is necessary for secretion of effectors destined for delivery to rice cells.

The filamentous ascomycete fungus Magnaporthe oryzae is a pathogen of over 50 genera of grasses. Two important diseases it can cause are gray leaf spot in Lolium perenne (perennial ryegrass) and blast in Oryza sativa (rice). The telomeres of M. oryzae isolates causing gray leaf spot are highly variable, and can spontaneously change during fungal culture. In this dissertation, it is shown that a rice-infecting isolate is much more stable at the telomeres than an isolate from gray leaf spot. To determine the molecular basis of telomere instability several gray leaf spot isolates telomeres were cloned, which revealed two non-LTR retrotransposons inserted into the telomere repeats. The elements have been termed Magnaporthe oryzae Telomeric Retrotransposons (MoTeRs). These elements do not have poly-A tails common to many other non-LTR retrotransposons, but instead have telomere like sequences at their 5’ end that allow them to insert into telomeres. Intact copies of MoTeRs were restricted to the telomeres of isolates causing gray leaf spot. Surveys for the presence of these elements in M. oryzae showed they were present in several host-specialized forms including gray leaf spot isolates, but were largely absent in the rice blast isolates. The absence of MoTeRs in rice blast isolates, which are relatively stable by comparison, suggested that the telomere instability in gray leaf spot isolates could be due to MoTeRs. Analyzing spontaneous alterations in telomere restriction fragment profiles of asexual progeny revealed that MoTeRs were involved. Expansion and contraction of MoTeR arrays were observed and account for some telomere restriction profile changes. New telomere formation in asexual progeny followed by MoTeR addition was also observed. Based on this evidence, MoTeRs are largely responsible for the high variability of telomere restriction profiles observed in GLS isolates.

No description available.

Research detailed in this thesis investigated the generation of Nitric Oxide (NO) and its role in the pathogenesis of the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. Two putative nitric oxide synthase genes and single copy nitrate and nitrite reductase genes were cloned as potential sources of NO in M. oryzae. Single and double gene disrupted mutants were generated and their phenotypes assessed. Detection of NO is problematic. Herein, a fluorescent plate reader assay was developed, exploiting the NO sensitive dye DAR-4M AM and the NO scavenger PTIO, to compare wildtype NO generation with the mutant strains. All strains were assessed for infection-related development on an artificial surface inductive to appressorium formation and maturation in the wildtype strain. Appressorium formation in the presence of PTIO and the NO donor DETANONOate was recorded for all strains on this surface. The pathogenicity of the wildtype and mutant strains were assessed, in terms of their ability to infect rice and barley plants. Finally, the capacity of each strain to metabolise nitrogen was evaluated to confirm the disruption of the nitrate and nitrite reductase genes. Collectively, the data demonstrate that the plate reader assay provides robust evidence for the generation of NO in M. oryzae. However, none of the various mutant strains showed a reduction in NO emission during germling morphogenesis. However, they exhibited significantly different infection-related development on an inductive artificial surface as compared with the wildtype strain. Moreover, exogenous application of PTIO to the wildtype strain provided evidence for NO and its involvement in germination and appressorium development. No significant differences in the infection of rice and barley leaves were observed between the wildtype and mutant strains, indicating their disrupted genes are dispensable for pathogenesis. The nitrate and nitrite reductase genes were found to be essential for nitrate assimilation. In summary, this work provides the most robust evidence for the generation of NO in fungi to-date, but the molecular mechanism underpinning the generation of NO in M. oryzae remains elusive.