<p>Polyunsaturated fatty acids can be bioactivated by two families of dioxygenases, which either contain non-heme iron (lipoxygenases) or heme (cyclooxygenases, linoleate diol synthases and α-dioxygenases).</p><p>Lipoxygenases and their products play important roles in the pathophysiology of plants and fungi. The only known lipoxygenase with catalytic manganese (Mn-lipoxygenase) is secreted by a devastating root pathogen of wheat, the Take-all fungus <i>Gaeumannomyces graminis</i>. Its mycelia also contains linoleate diol synthase (LDS), which can oxidize linoleic acid to sporulation hormones.</p><p>Mn-lipoxygenase belongs to the lipoxygenase gene family. Recombinant Mn-lipoxygenase was successfully expressed in the yeast <i>Pichia pastoris</i> with an expression level of 30 mg/L in fermentor culture. The tentative metal ligands of Mn-lipoxygenase were studied by site-directed mutagenesis. The results show that four residues His-274, His-278, His-462 and the C-terminal Val-602 likely coordinate manganese, as predicted by sequence alignments with Fe lipoxygenases.</p><p>Mn-lipoxygenase (~100 kDa) contains an Asp-Pro peptide bond in the N-terminal region, which appears to hydrolyze during storage and in the acidic media during Pichia expression to an active enzyme of smaller size, mini-Mn-lipoxygenase (~70 kDa). The active form of Mn-lipoxygenase can oxygenate fatty acids of variable chain length, suggesting that the fatty acids enter the catalytic site with the ω-end (“tail first”).</p><p>Mn-lipoxygenase is an <i>R</i>-lipoxygenase with a conserved Gly316 residue known as a determinant of stereospecificity in other <i>R/S</i> lipoxygenases. The Gly316Ala mutant showed an increased hydroperoxide isomerase activity and transformed 18:3n-3 and 17:3n-3 to epoxyalcohols.</p><p>The genome of the rice blast fungus, <i>Magnaporthe grisea</i>, contains putative genes of lipoxygenases and LDS. Mycelia of <i>M. grisea</i> were found to express LDS activity. This enzyme was cloned and sequenced and showed 65% amino acid identity with LDS from <i>G.graminis</i>. </p><p>Take-all and the rice blast fungi represent a constant threat to staple foods worldwide. Mn-lipoxygenase and LDS might provide new means to combat these pathogens.</p>

Polyunsaturated fatty acids can be bioactivated by two families of dioxygenases, which either contain non-heme iron (lipoxygenases) or heme (cyclooxygenases, linoleate diol synthases and α-dioxygenases). Lipoxygenases and their products play important roles in the pathophysiology of plants and fungi. The only known lipoxygenase with catalytic manganese (Mn-lipoxygenase) is secreted by a devastating root pathogen of wheat, the Take-all fungus Gaeumannomyces graminis. Its mycelia also contains linoleate diol synthase (LDS), which can oxidize linoleic acid to sporulation hormones. Mn-lipoxygenase belongs to the lipoxygenase gene family. Recombinant Mn-lipoxygenase was successfully expressed in the yeast Pichia pastoris with an expression level of 30 mg/L in fermentor culture. The tentative metal ligands of Mn-lipoxygenase were studied by site-directed mutagenesis. The results show that four residues His-274, His-278, His-462 and the C-terminal Val-602 likely coordinate manganese, as predicted by sequence alignments with Fe lipoxygenases. Mn-lipoxygenase (~100 kDa) contains an Asp-Pro peptide bond in the N-terminal region, which appears to hydrolyze during storage and in the acidic media during Pichia expression to an active enzyme of smaller size, mini-Mn-lipoxygenase (~70 kDa). The active form of Mn-lipoxygenase can oxygenate fatty acids of variable chain length, suggesting that the fatty acids enter the catalytic site with the ω-end (“tail first”). Mn-lipoxygenase is an R-lipoxygenase with a conserved Gly316 residue known as a determinant of stereospecificity in other R/S lipoxygenases. The Gly316Ala mutant showed an increased hydroperoxide isomerase activity and transformed 18:3n-3 and 17:3n-3 to epoxyalcohols. The genome of the rice blast fungus, Magnaporthe grisea, contains putative genes of lipoxygenases and LDS. Mycelia of M. grisea were found to express LDS activity. This enzyme was cloned and sequenced and showed 65% amino acid identity with LDS from G.graminis. Take-all and the rice blast fungi represent a constant threat to staple foods worldwide. Mn-lipoxygenase and LDS might provide new means to combat these pathogens.

The dioxygenase-cytochrome P450 fusion proteins (DOX-CYP) comprise a heme-containing enzyme family that shares structural and catalytic properties with mammalian prostaglandin H (PGH) synthases. 7,8-Linoleate diol synthase (7,8-LDS) of Gaeumannomyces graminis was first characterized, and DOX-CYP enzymes are of mechanistic and biological interest. The growing number of fungal genome sequences has revealed DOX-CYP homologues in medically and economically important species. The aim of this thesis was to identify novel members of the DOX-CYP fusion protein family. The devastating rice pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae contains two DOX-CYP genes. The fungus synthesizes 7S,8S-dihydroxyoctadecadienoic acid (7,8-DiHODE) by dioxygenation of linoleic acid to 8R-hydroperoxyoctadecadienoic acid (8R-HPODE), and subsequent isomerisation to the diol. 7,8-LDS of M. oryzae was identified by gene deletion, but the infection and reproduction processes of the Δ7,8-LDS strain were not altered. A mutant with constitutive protein kinase A activity profoundly changed the oxygenation profile, possibly due to post-translational modification. The human pathogens Aspergillus fumigatus and A. clavatus contain three DOX-CYP, designated psi producing oxygenase A (ppoA), ppoB, and ppoC, and form three oxylipins: 5S,8R-DiHODE, 8R,11S-DiHODE, and 10R-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid.  PpoA was identified as 5,8-LDS, and ppoC as 10R-DOX. The 8,11-linoleate hydroperoxide isomerase activity was reduced by two imidazole-containing P450 inhibitors, miconazole and 1-benzylimidazole. PpoB could not be linked to the biosynthesis of 8,11-DiHODE for the following reasons: First, the 8,11-hydroperoxide isomerase activity was retained in A. fumigatus ΔppoB strains. Second, the P450 domain of the deduced ppoB of A. clavatus lacks a heme-thiolate cysteine ligand, presumably essential for hydroperoxide isomerase activity. Linoleate 9R-DOX activities of Aspergillus terreus and Lasiodiplodia theobromae were discovered. 9R-HPODE was further converted into unstable allene oxides, as judged by the accumulation of their hydrolysis products, α- and γ-ketols. These allene oxide synthase activities were specific for 9R-hydroperoxides. The 9R-DOX and AOS were found to have unique characteristics. In conclusion, novel DOX-CYP enzymes were identified in human and plant pathogenic fungi. These enzymes might be involved in biological processes, and show interesting catalytic similarities to human PGH synthase and thromboxane synthase (CYP5A).

Microbes live in complex environments where competitive and cooperative interactions occur that dictate their success and the status of their environment. By furthering our understanding of the interactions between microbes, questions into the evolution of cooperation, disease virulence and biodiversity can be addressed. This will help develop strategies to overcome problems concerning disease, socioeconomics and conservation. We use an approach that combines evolutionary ecology theory with genetics and molecular biology to establish and develop model microbial ecological systems to examine feeding strategies, in what has been termed synthetic ecology. Using the model fungal plant pathogen system of rice blast disease, we generated less virulent gene deletion mutants to examine the sociality of feeding strategies during infection and test a nascent virulence reduction strategy based on competitive exclusion. We revealed that the success of the pathogen is unexpectedly enhanced in mixed strain infections containing the virulent wild-type strain with a less virulent gene deletion mutant of the metabolic enzyme invertase. Our finding is explained by interference between different social traits that occur during sucrose feeding. To test the generality of our result, gene deletion mutants of putative proteases were generated and characterised. We found that if virulence related genes acted ‘privately’, as predicted by social theory, the associated mutants would not make viable strains to use for this virulence reduction strategy by competitive exclusion. Our study then went on to study the fitness of digesting resources extracellularly, as many microbes do, given that this strategy is exposed to social exploitation by individuals who do not pay the metabolic costs. This was investigated by developing an experimental system with Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Though internalising digestion could suppress cheats, the relative fitness of opposing strategies was dependent upon the environmental and demographic conditions. Using this polymorphic system, the influence of competitors on the stability of cooperation, and the influence of cheats on the maintenance of diversity were assessed. To test the fitness of internal versus external digestion in a more natural setting, we generated an internally digesting strain of the rice blast fungus. In addition to suppressing cheats, the strain had enhanced fitness and virulence over the wild-type. We propose that this is caused by a shift in a trade-off between yield and rate. We show how a synthetic ecology approach can capture details of the biology underlying complex ecological processes, while having control over the factors that drive them, so that the underlying mechanisms can be teased apart.

No description available.

Diversiteten bland gener som ger resistens (R) mot infektionssjukdomar är mycket stor i växtriket, särskilt i den effektorutlösta klassen av försvaret. Denna artikel beskriver interaktioner mellan växters effektorutlösta fösvar och patogeners effektorproteiner och undersöker evolutionära och genetiska mekanismer för uppkomsten av ny resistens. R-genprodukter har en typisk domänstruktur och interagerar både direkt och indirekt med patogeners effektorproteiner.Vid kontakt med ett effektorprotein utlöses en försvarsrespons som kan förhindra fortsatt patogen tillväxt. Flera genetiska mekanismer verkar samtidigt på R-gener, något som resulterar i en hög hastighet för uppkomst av nya R-varianter. Den intima samevolution som existerar hos många patogen-växtsystem formar det evolutionära utvecklingsmönstret av R-gener. Diversifierande positiv selektion via den biologiska kapprustningsmodellen och bevarande negativ frekvensberoende selektion är båda viktiga samevolutionära processer. Denna artikel indikerar att växters immunförsvar är anpassningsbart och robust, men belyser också den kunskapsbrist som råder inom resistensforskningen. / The diversity among genes conferring resistance (R) against infectious diseases is very high in the plant kingdom, especially in the effector triggered class of defense. This article describes the interactions between the plant effector triggered immunity and pathogen effectors and examines the evolutionary and genetic mechanisms for the emergence of new resistance. R gene products have a typical domain structure and interacts both directly and indirectly with pathogen effectors. Upon contact with an effector a defense response is triggered that may prevent the further pathogen growth. Multiple genetic mechanisms act simultaneously on the R-genes, which results in a rapid diversification of novel R variants. The intimate co-evolution of many existing plant-pathogen systems form the evolutionary pattern of R genes. Diversifying positive selection via the biological arms race model and conservative negative frequency-dependent selection are both important coevolutionary processes. This article indicates that the plant immune system is adaptive and robust, but also highlights the lack of knowledge in plant resistance research.

[EN] Rice (Oryza sativa L) is the main staple food for over 3 billion people (almost half the world population), and rice blast, caused by the fungus Magnaporthe oryzae, is the major threat for this crop worldwide, triggering also important losses in Spain some years. Some resistant cultivars have been released, mainly with complete resistance genes (Pi genes), but their resistance has not lasted long, due to the emergence of new virulent isolates. Therefore, the efforts for obtaining effective and durable resistance are focused nowadays on the use of partial resistance or a combination of partial and complete resistance. Partial resistance is a quantitative character, controlled by numerous genes of small effects (QTLs), that can interact among them, and usually also strongly with the environment. For a better knowledge of the population of M. oryzae in the Albufera region, and of the resistance genes and QTLs that might be effective in various Spanish rice growing regions, we tested along four years 31 differential varieties (isogenic lines carrying one different Pi gene each); these studies showed that fungus population can significantly change from one year to the other. On the other hand, we analyzed the genetics of resistance to M. oryzae in two populations derived from crosses between local and well adapted, although moderately susceptible, varieties (Sivert, JSendra), and allegedly resistant but poorly adapted varieties (CAN-6159, Gigante Vercelly. In F3 lines of both populations, the leaf and panicle susceptibility was determined in field trials under conditions that favour the infection: SixCNA lines were tested in a plot in the Albufera region, and those of JSxGV in four locations of Valencia, the Ebro River Delta, and Seville; inoculations in controlled conditions were also carried out in the second population. We compare the different methodologies for assessing susceptibility, and we discuss the environmental influence on it. 22 QTLs were detected in SIxCNA, and 61 in JSxGV, most of them in only one location. All four parents displayed partial resistance QTLs; but some QTLs showed small additive effects and, often, high dominance. At the same time, most of these QTLs exhibit significant interactions with other QTLs; and many of them co-localize with QTLs found in other studies. We have discovered substantial coincidences between QTLs that control incidence in panicle and those that determine leaf severity, thus supporting the hypothesis that there are common defence mechanisms in both organs. Chromosomal regions of interest for marker assisted breeding of resistant genotypes have been identified. / [ES] El arroz (Oryza sativa L.) es la principal fuente de alimentación para más de 3.000 millones de personas, casi la mitad de la población mundial, y la "piriculariosis", causada por el hongo Magnaporthe oryzae Couch, es la enfermedad que más pérdidas causa en este cultivo a escala mundial; también en España ha causado pérdidas importantes algunos años. Se han obtenido diversas variedades resistentes, principalmente al incorporar genes de resistencia completa (genes Pi), pero la mayoría se han vuelto susceptibles en pocos años al aparecer nuevos aislados más virulentos. Actualmente, para conseguir una resistencia efectiva y duradera, se busca incorporar resistencia parcial, o una combinación de ambos tipos de resistencia. La resistencia parcial es un carácter cuantitativo, controlado por numerosos genes de efecto pequeño (o QTLs), que pueden interaccionar entre ellos y que, con frecuencia, también lo hacen intensamente con el ambiente. Para conocer mejor la población del patógeno presente en la zona de la Albufera, y qué genes y QTLs de resistencia pueden ser efectivos en ésta y otras zonas arroceras de España, por un lado se ensayaron durante varios años 31 variedades diferenciales (líneas con un gen Pi diferente cada una); esto demostró que la estructura de la población del hongo puede variar significativamente con los años. Por otro lado, realizamos estudios genéticos sobre la resistencia a M. oryzae en dos poblaciones, procedentes del cruzamiento entre variedades locales, bien adaptadas pero moderadamente susceptibles (Sivert y JSendra) y variedades resistentes, pero no adaptadas (CNA-6159 y Gigante Vercelli). En líneas F3 de ambas poblaciones se determinó la resistencia en campo, en condiciones favorables para el ataque del hongo, en hojas y órganos productivos: en SixCNA, en una parcela de la Albufera, y en JSxGV, en 4 localidades de Valencia, el Delta del Ebro y Sevilla; en JSxGV, además, se realizaron inoculaciones en condiciones controladas. Se comparan los diferentes sistemas de medida de la susceptibilidad, y se discute la influencia ambiental en ella. Se detectaron 22 QTLs en SixCNA, y 61 QTLs en JSxGV, la mayoría de los cuales sólo se expresan en una localidad. Todos los parentales aportan alelos de resistencia; pero la mayoría de los QTLs identificados son de efectos pequeños y, a menudo, con un notable componente dominante. Al mismo tiempo, gran parte de estos QTLs presentan interacciones significativas con otros QTLs; y muchos de ellos co-localizan con QTLs identificados en otros estudios. Hemos encontrado bastantes coincidencias entre QTLs que controlan la incidencia en panículas y los que determinan la severidad en las hojas, apoyando la hipótesis de que existen mecanismos de defensa comunes en ambos órganos. Se han localizado regiones cromosómicas de interés que podrían ser utilizadas para la selección de genotipos resistentes. / [CAT] L'arròs (Oryza sativa L.) és la principal font d'alimentació per a més de 3.000 millions de persones, quasi la meitat de la població mundial, i la "piriculariosi", causada pel fong Magnaporthe oryzae Couch, és la malaltia que més pèrdues origina en aquest conreu a escala mundial; també a Espanya ha causat pèrdues importants alguns anys. S'han obtès diverses varietats resistents, principalment en incorporar gens de resistència completa (gens Pi), però la majoria s'han tornat susceptibles en pocs anys en aparèixer nous aïllats més virulents. Actualment, per aconseguir una resistència efectiva i duradora, es cerca incorporar resistència parcial, o una combinació de tots dos tipus de resistència. La resistència parcial és un caràcter quantitatiu, controlat per nombrosos gens d'efecte reduït (o QTLs), els quals poden interaccionar entre sí i que, sovint, també ho fan intensament amb l'ambient. Per conéixer millor la població del patògen present a la zona de l'Albufera, i quins gens i QTLs de resistència poden ser efectius a aquesta i a d'altres zones arrosseres d'Espanya, per una banda s'assajaren durant diversos anys 31 varietats diferencials (línies amb un gen Pi diferent cadascuna); això demostrà que l'estructura de la població del fong pot variejar significativament amb els anys. Per altra banda, realitzàrem estudis genètics sobre la resistència a M. oryzae en dues poblacions, procedents del encreuament entre varietats locals, adaptades però moderadament susceptibles (Sivert i JSendra) i varietats resistents però no adaptades (CNA-6159 i Gigante Vercelli). En línies F3 d'ambdues poblacions es determinà la resistència en camp, en condicions favorables per a l'atac del fong, en fulles i òrgans productius: en SixCNA, en una parcel·la de l'Albufera, i en JSxGV en quatre localitats de València, el Delta de l'Ebre i Sevilla; en JSxGV, a més a més, es realitzaren inoculacions en condicions controlades. Es comparen els diversos sistemes de mesura de la susceptibilidad, i es discuteix la influència ambiental en aquesta. Es detectaren 22 QTLs en SixCNA i 61 QTLs en JSxGV, la major part dels quals solament s'expressen a una localitat. Tots els parentals aporten al·lels de resistència; però alguns dels QTLs identificats són d'efectes reduïts i, freqüentment, amb un notable component dominant. Paral·lelament, gran part d'aquestos QTLs presenten interaccions significatives amb altres QTLs; i molts d'aquestos co-localitzen amb QTLs identificats en altres estudis. Hem trobat bastants coincidències entre QTLs que controlen la incidència en panícules i els que determinen la severitat a les fulles, recolzant la hipòtesi que existeixen mecanismes de defensa comuns en ambdós òrgans. S'han localitzat regions cromosòmiques d'interès que podrien ser emprades per a la selecció de genotipus resistents / Pérez Lotz, J. (2016). Análisis genético de la resistencia parcial a Magnaporthe oryzae en arroz (Oryza sativa) en varias poblaciones y ambientes [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/62582 / TESIS