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Einleitung: Epidemiologische Studien zeigen den langfristigen Nutzen körperlicher Aktivität zur Prävention neurologischer Erkrankungen und kognitiver Defizite im Alter auf. Sportliche Betätigung kann jedoch, vor allem bei Ausübung von Kontaktsportarten, auch akute und chronische neuronale Schädigungen durch häufige mechanische Beeinflussungen des Gehirns hervorrufen. NSE und S-100B sind laborchemische Marker, die im Rahmen der Diagnostik von Hirnschädigungen zum Einsatz kommen. Einige Forschungsarbeiten fanden erhöhte Konzentrationen dieser Biomarker nach sportlichen Belastungen ohne offensichtliches Vorliegen von traumatischen Ereignissen oder neurologischer Beeinträchtigungen. Daher stellt sich die Frage, ob entsprechende Norm- bzw. Cut-Off-Werte für NSE und S-100B universell im klinischen Alltag geeignet sind oder durch belastungsinduzierte Einflüsse einer differenzierteren Beurteilung unterzogen werden sollten. In vorliegender Arbeit wird diese Fragestellung anhand der klassischen Ausdauersportarten Laufen und Radfahren untersucht. Ergebnisse und Diskussion: Zunächst erfolgte der Nachweis für die Reproduzierbarkeit von NSE bei Ausdauersportlern für Ruhe- und Belastungsbedingungen. Es wurden keine signifikanten Unterschiede für NSE im Belastungsvergleich von Radfahren und Laufen, wie beim Vergleich verschiedener Laufintensitäten im zeitlichen Verlauf festgestellt. Die denkbare Einflussnahme beim Laufen durch leichte Erschütterungen des Gehirns basierend auf dem Impact beim Bodenkontakt des Fußes, ist offensichtlich irrelevant. Physischer Stress, der durch einen Marathonlauf verursacht wird, führt offensichtlich in der Akutphase nach dem Wettkampf zu einem signifikanten Anstieg von NSE und S-100B, welche im späteren Verlauf wieder auf das Ausgangsniveau abfallen. Dies ist unabhängig von Alter und Geschlecht. Über dem Normwert für Gesunde liegende NSE-Konzentrationen nach einer Marathonbelastung, haben offensichtlich keine pathophysiologischen Auswirkungen oder klinische Korrelationen. In der klinischen Praxis sollten erhöhte NSE-Werte entsprechend vorsichtig interpretiert werden. Weitere marathonspezifische Faktoren wie Trainingshäufigkeit, Renneinteilung, Wetterbedingungen und Dysnatriämie, aber auch Alter und Geschlecht zeigten keine Zusammenhänge hinsichtlich der Serum-Konzentration von NSE und S-100B. Ebenfalls fanden sich keine signifikanten Veränderungen bei der Klassifizierung von Notfallpatienten bei Laufveranstaltungen bezüglich Diagnose und Streckenlängen. Fortführende Forschungsaktivitäten mit hohen Fallzahlen sind notwendig, um die Wertigkeit der beiden biochemischen Labormarker unter Einfluss körperlicher Aktivität herauszustellen.:1. Einleitung und allgemeine Problemstellung 1 1.1 Einleitung 1 1.2 Ziele der Arbeit 4 2. Theoretische Grundlagen 5 2.1 Theoretische Grundlagen zu NSE 5 2.2 Theoretische Grundlagen zu S-100B 8 2.3 Einfluss sportlicher Belastungen auf NSE 9 2.4 Einfluss sportlicher Belastungen auf S-100B 10 3. Grundlegende Aspekte zur Methodik dieser Arbeit 12 3.1 Blutanalytik 13 3.2 Messverfahren NSE und S-100B 13 3.3 Ausschluss Hämolyse 14 3.4 Plasmavolumenkorrektur 17 3.5 Leistungsdiagnostik 18 3.6 Auswertung und Statistik 19 4. Teilstudie 1 - Methodische Untersuchungen 21 4.1 Reproduzierbarkeit von NSE unter Ruhe- und Belastungsbedingungen 21 4.1.1 Einleitung 21 4.1.2 Methoden 21 4.1.2.1 Probanden 21 4.1.2.2 Studiendesign 23 4.1.3 Ergebnisse 24 4.1.4 Diskussion 30 4.2 Pilotstudie zur In-vivo-Bestimmung von zerebralen S-100B mittels 1H-Magnetresonanzspetroskopie 35 4.2.1 Einleitung 35 4.2.2 Methoden 35 4.2.2.1 Probanden 35 4.2.2.2 Messverfahren 36 4.2.2.3 Studiendesign 39 4.2.3 Ergebnisse 39 4.2.4 Diskussion 41 5. Teilstudie 2 - Untersuchungen zum Einfluss sportlicher Belastung und NSE 47 5.1 Belastungsart und NSE 47 5.1.1 Einleitung 47 5.1.2 Methoden 47 5.1.2.1 Probanden 47 5.1.2.2 Studiendesign 48 5.1.3 Ergebnisse 50 5.1.4 Diskussion 54 5.2 Belastungsintensität und NSE 56 5.2.1 Einleitung 56 5.2.2 Methoden 56 5.2.2.1 Probanden 56 5.2.2.2 Studiendesign 57 5.2.3 Ergebnisse 57 5.2.4 Diskussion 61 6. Teilstudie 3 - Untersuchungen zum Einfluss von Marathonbelastungen auf NSE und S-100B 62 6.1 Einleitung 62 6.2 Methoden 64 6.2.1 Probanden 64 6.2.2 Sonstige Blutparameter 69 6.2.3 Studiendesign 71 6.3 Ergebnisse 71 6.3.1 Zeitlicher Verlauf 71 6.3.2 Geschlecht und NSE 73 6.3.3 Einfluss des Alters 75 6.3.4 Sportanamnestische Daten 79 6.3.5 Renntaktik 81 6.3.6 Wetterbedingungen 82 6.3.7 Dysnatriämie 84 6.3.8 NSE und S-100B im Zusammenhang mit weiteren belastungsspezifischen Laborparametern 85 6.4 Diskussion 91 6.4.1 Zeitlicher Verlauf 91 6.4.2 Alter und Geschlecht 93 6.4.3 Trainingshäufigkeit und -umfang 94 6.4.4 Renneinteilung 95 6.4.5 Elektrolytstörungen 97 6.4.6 NSE und S-100B im Zusammenhang mit weiteren belastungsspezifischen Laborparametern 98 7. Teilstudie 4 - Untersuchungen bei laufassoziierten Notfällen 104 7.1 Laufassoziierte Notfälle und NSE 104 7.1.1 Einleitung 104 7.1.2 Methoden 105 7.1.2.1 Probanden 105 7.1.2.2 Studiendesign 105 7.1.3 Ergebnisse 106 7.1.4 Diskussion 108 7.2 Einzelfallstudie 111 7.2.1 Einleitung 111 7.2.2 Methoden 111 7.2.2.1 Proband 111 7.2.2.2 Studiendesign 112 7.2.3 Ergebnisse 112 7.2.4 Diskussion 114 8. Abschließende Diskussion 118 9. Zusammenfassung 123 10. Literaturverzeichnis 125 11. Anhang 140 12. Danksagung 145 13. Eidesstattliche Erklärung 146 / Introduction: Epidemiological studies show long term benefits of exercise and sports for neurological diseases and cognitive deficits in elderly populations. In contact sports however also acute and chronic neuronal impairment of the brain itself caused by repetitive mechanical impact have been found. NSE and S-100B are biochemical markers used in diagnostics of brain injuries. Through several studies found increased values of theses markers after exercise without evident existence of traumatological occasion or neurological impairment. Whether NSE and S-100B and its corresponding reference- and cut-off-values can be applied in clinical routine or if exercise-induced effects apply for a more sophisticated evaluation, should herein be examined by the effects of traditionally endurance sports running and cycling. Results and discussion: At first the proof for repeatability of NSE in endurance sportsmen at rest and during physical activity was given. When comparing the effects of cycling and running as well as different training intensities in these sports, no significant changes could be noticed. Possible causes of elevated NSE due to slight concussions of the brain based on repetitive impact forces during running are obviously irrelevant. Running a marathon tends to result in a significant raise of NSE and S-100B in the acute period after the competition. The further process shows a decline to the base level independent of age or gender. NSE values above norm values after completing a marathon have clearly no pathophysiological effects or clinical correlates. Thus high NSE- concentrations should be interpreted with caution in clinical praxis. Further marathon specific factors like training, pacing strategy, weather conditions, dysnatraemia show no significant correlations with NSE or S-100B. Clustering emergency cases by diagnosis and running distance revealed no relationships to NSE. Further research with larger populations is necessary, to emphasize the relevance for NSE and S-100B during exercise.:1. Einleitung und allgemeine Problemstellung 1 1.1 Einleitung 1 1.2 Ziele der Arbeit 4 2. Theoretische Grundlagen 5 2.1 Theoretische Grundlagen zu NSE 5 2.2 Theoretische Grundlagen zu S-100B 8 2.3 Einfluss sportlicher Belastungen auf NSE 9 2.4 Einfluss sportlicher Belastungen auf S-100B 10 3. Grundlegende Aspekte zur Methodik dieser Arbeit 12 3.1 Blutanalytik 13 3.2 Messverfahren NSE und S-100B 13 3.3 Ausschluss Hämolyse 14 3.4 Plasmavolumenkorrektur 17 3.5 Leistungsdiagnostik 18 3.6 Auswertung und Statistik 19 4. Teilstudie 1 - Methodische Untersuchungen 21 4.1 Reproduzierbarkeit von NSE unter Ruhe- und Belastungsbedingungen 21 4.1.1 Einleitung 21 4.1.2 Methoden 21 4.1.2.1 Probanden 21 4.1.2.2 Studiendesign 23 4.1.3 Ergebnisse 24 4.1.4 Diskussion 30 4.2 Pilotstudie zur In-vivo-Bestimmung von zerebralen S-100B mittels 1H-Magnetresonanzspetroskopie 35 4.2.1 Einleitung 35 4.2.2 Methoden 35 4.2.2.1 Probanden 35 4.2.2.2 Messverfahren 36 4.2.2.3 Studiendesign 39 4.2.3 Ergebnisse 39 4.2.4 Diskussion 41 5. Teilstudie 2 - Untersuchungen zum Einfluss sportlicher Belastung und NSE 47 5.1 Belastungsart und NSE 47 5.1.1 Einleitung 47 5.1.2 Methoden 47 5.1.2.1 Probanden 47 5.1.2.2 Studiendesign 48 5.1.3 Ergebnisse 50 5.1.4 Diskussion 54 5.2 Belastungsintensität und NSE 56 5.2.1 Einleitung 56 5.2.2 Methoden 56 5.2.2.1 Probanden 56 5.2.2.2 Studiendesign 57 5.2.3 Ergebnisse 57 5.2.4 Diskussion 61 6. Teilstudie 3 - Untersuchungen zum Einfluss von Marathonbelastungen auf NSE und S-100B 62 6.1 Einleitung 62 6.2 Methoden 64 6.2.1 Probanden 64 6.2.2 Sonstige Blutparameter 69 6.2.3 Studiendesign 71 6.3 Ergebnisse 71 6.3.1 Zeitlicher Verlauf 71 6.3.2 Geschlecht und NSE 73 6.3.3 Einfluss des Alters 75 6.3.4 Sportanamnestische Daten 79 6.3.5 Renntaktik 81 6.3.6 Wetterbedingungen 82 6.3.7 Dysnatriämie 84 6.3.8 NSE und S-100B im Zusammenhang mit weiteren belastungsspezifischen Laborparametern 85 6.4 Diskussion 91 6.4.1 Zeitlicher Verlauf 91 6.4.2 Alter und Geschlecht 93 6.4.3 Trainingshäufigkeit und -umfang 94 6.4.4 Renneinteilung 95 6.4.5 Elektrolytstörungen 97 6.4.6 NSE und S-100B im Zusammenhang mit weiteren belastungsspezifischen Laborparametern 98 7. Teilstudie 4 - Untersuchungen bei laufassoziierten Notfällen 104 7.1 Laufassoziierte Notfälle und NSE 104 7.1.1 Einleitung 104 7.1.2 Methoden 105 7.1.2.1 Probanden 105 7.1.2.2 Studiendesign 105 7.1.3 Ergebnisse 106 7.1.4 Diskussion 108 7.2 Einzelfallstudie 111 7.2.1 Einleitung 111 7.2.2 Methoden 111 7.2.2.1 Proband 111 7.2.2.2 Studiendesign 112 7.2.3 Ergebnisse 112 7.2.4 Diskussion 114 8. Abschließende Diskussion 118 9. Zusammenfassung 123 10. Literaturverzeichnis 125 11. Anhang 140 12. Danksagung 145 13. Eidesstattliche Erklärung 146

D.Litt. et Phil. / South Africa is currently entering a phase of increased international sport participation. Apart from the fact that due to isolation the country has fallen behind in this regard, sport is currently also one of the biggest industries, and it may thus play an important role in the country's economy. Road running has been one of the country's most popular sports for quite some time now. It has already been determined that relaxation may possibly be one of the most important sport psychological components for success in road running. A specific relaxation exercise through which road athletes' performances in races may possibly be improved does not exist. It would thus be necessary to develop such a relaxation exercise and to determine its effect on road athletes' performances in a specific race ...

The objective of this dissertation was to evaluate the changes in preparedness over the course of training for a marathon in two well-trained runners. The athletes completed periodized strength training or a periodized concurrent training. This dissertation consisted of two separate investigations: Study 1 – The purpose of this study was to monitor changes in force production ability and running performance in one sub-elite marathon runner before, during, and after undertaking a short-term block periodized strength training program. The athlete ceased strength training during the off-seasons and resumed testing after 10. The athlete experienced likely true, meaningful changes in force production characteristics during the taper after the training program. Improvements in force production characteristics coincided with improvements in running economy. Both force production characteristics and running economy reversed after the withdraw from strength training. However, both measures remained improved from initial baseline. The improvement in running economy and force production likely coincided with a cardiovascular de-training period, due to a reduction in aerobic training during the off-season. Therefore, strength training may have independent effects on running economy and running performance. These results indicate that endurance runners may better optimize performance by improving force production characteristics via periodized strength training program, and should avoid prolonged periods without strength training. Study 2 – The purpose of this study was to monitor the concurrent and divergent changes in athlete preparedness and performance over a competitive training cycle in two marathon athletes. One athlete added a block periodized strength training program to a non-periodized endurance training program (NBP Athlete). The other athlete (BP Athlete) completed an integrated, concurrent block periodized program using HIT over-reach endurance training. Both athlete displayed improvements in running performance and running economy over the duration of the monitoring program. The BP Athlete displayed earlier and greater magnitudes of performance improvements. These results indicate that strength training can enhance running economy in marathon athletes, performance may be better optimized through periodized integration of strength and endurance training, and the use of HIT over-reach blocks may improve marathon relevant fitness characteristic within the ecologically valid context of an athlete’s training cycle.

Background Running is a popular form of exercise that more than 55 million Americans actively participate. Endurance running like marathon and half- marathon is getting increasingly popular among active runners. Although the effect of running is considered beneficial to bone health, the direct relationship between strains and strain gradients occurred during long distance running and bone changes is still not clear. Especially, given a high rate of injury associated with the first-time marathon, understanding the direct effect of strain stimuli on bone health is an important issue. Based on the previous studies, we hypothesized that the higher values of strain will induce bone adaptation more effectively and will lead to higher bone osteogenic changes. Since osteocytes sense shear stress caused by the interstitial fluid flow, which is created by the deformations, and regulate activities of osteoblasts and osteoclast that govern bone adaptation, we also hypothesized that the local strain gradient will create pressure differences within the interstitial fluid network and will increase fluid flow. Furthermore, due to that increased fluid flow, the regions with the higher strain gradient will experience a higher amount of bone adaptation. Thus, in this study, our purpose was to define the effect of the strains and strain gradients on bone changes within distal tibia, which is the most prone anatomical site to low risk stress fracture, during training for first-time marathon. Methods High-resolution and low-resolution computed tomographic (CT) images of the distal tibia were obtained before and after a self-selected training from runners who were actively training to participate in their first-time marathon in the next calendar year. The low resolution scan covered a 69.864 mm length of the distal end of the tibia while the high resolution CT scan covered a 9.02 mm region of the distal tibia. Using low resolution CT image based subject specific finite element (FE) models, the strains and strain gradients of the distal tibia at the instance of the peak ground reaction force (GRF) were calculated. The baseline and follow-up high resolution CT scans were used in high resolution peripheral quantitative CT (HRpQCT) analysis and the estimation of bone changes over the training period. Finally, the effect of strains and strain gradients on the distal tibia bone changes was estimated based on the FE model driven strain values and HRpQCT analysis driven bone changes. We used a linear mixed model to define the relationship between strain values and bone changes in the distal tibia. Results The strain values that occurred during marathon training had significant effects on bone changes in the distal tibia. Particularly, the strain gradients showed a higher effect than the strains. In the cortical compartment, the strain gradients, which were calculated as a strain difference of a node from the surrounding nodes (Strain Gradient-1), affected the bone mineral density (BMD) negatively, and per 1000 µε increase resulted in 2.123% decrease in the cortical BMD. The strain gradients, which were calculated as a strain difference of a node from the surrounding nodes normalized to distance to surrounding nodes (Strain Gradient-2), presented a positive effect on the cortical bone volume with a slope of 4.335% / 1000 µε. In the trabecular compartment, the strain gradient-1 showed negative effects on the percent change in BMD and bone mineral density (BMC), whereas the strain gradient-2 showed positive effects on the percent change in BMD and BMC. Conclusion The linear mixed model analysis revealed a statistically significant (p < 0.05) relationship between strain gradients that occurred during running and distal tibia bone changes. The strains, biometrics, and initial parameters of bone did not show any significant effect on the bone changes. The connection between local strain environment and bone changes in the distal tibia investigated in this study is an important step to understand the mechanism of mechanically induced bone adaptation.

Pesquisas recentes buscaram compreender a organização de programas esportivos em diferentes países com sucesso internacional. Esses estudos relatam a existência de pontos comuns relevantes para o desenvolvimento do esporte de alto rendimento. No entanto, pouco tem sido discutido no meio acadêmico em âmbito nacional a respeito deste tema. Esta pesquisa foi realizada em duas fases, respectivamente A e B, com os seguintes objetivos: Fase A - descrever a estrutura organizacional da maratona aquática no Brasil, com referência aos aspectos de administração do sistema esportivo e ao sistema de desenvolvimento e suporte para atletas e técnicos da maratona aquática conforme propostos por Green e Oakley (2001); Fase B - verificar a qualidade dos programas de detecção, seleção e promoção dos talentos esportivos (DSPTE) na maratona aquática no Brasil com relação à estrutura, processos e resultados. Na fase A foi realizada uma entrevista semiestruturada, junto a 2 técnicos olímpicos e 2 funcionários responsáveis pela organização da modalidade sendo um representante do nível nacional e outro do nível municipal no Brasil; na análise dos resultados foi utilizado o método do Discurso do Sujeito Coletivo (DSC) proposto por Lefèvre e Lefèvre (2003). Na fase B foi aplicado um questionário desenvolvido por Rütten, Ziemainz e Röger (2005), o qual foi traduzido e validado para a língua portuguesa, junto a 2 técnicos olímpicos, 2 funcionários responsáveis pela organização da modalidade sendo um representante do nível nacional e outro do nível municipal no Brasil e 9 atletas (3 olímpicos e 6 da seleção júnior); os dados foram analisados descritivamente através dos valores de mediana dos dados obtidos, com a utilização do programa SPSS versão 20. De acordo com os resultados verificou-se que as entidades governamentais e não governamentais possuem papel diferente entre si devido à ausência de organização centralizadora e comunicação direta entre atleta de alto rendimento e entidades no nível nacional. O sistema de desenvolvimento e suporte para atletas e técnicos da maratona aquática no Brasil acontece apesar de não existir um sistema de desenvolvimento do talento esportivo elaborado pelos órgãos no nível nacional e do COB oferecer, de modo restrito, apenas dois programas sendo um de aperfeiçoamento técnico e outro voltado para o atleta em transição da carreira esportiva para o término da carreira esportiva. Nos programas de detecção, seleção e promoção de talentos esportivos para a maratona aquática de alto rendimento no Brasil, foi verificada baixa qualidade nos Resultados da DSTE, pois esse processo é desenvolvido conjuntamente à natação permitindo a migração para a maratona aquática somente a partir dos 14 anos e alta qualidade para os Processos da PTE nos quais os atletas que alcançaram o alto rendimento esportivo são assistidos de maneira diferenciada. Diante da inexistência de um sistema esportivo nacional para esta finalidade, sugere-se que seja verificada a estrutura organizacional da maratona aquática em outros países com sucesso internacional para que, a exemplo das pesquisas comparativas sobre o sistema esportivo de outras nações, seja possível identificar semelhanças para diminuir os aspectos negativos e se manter entre as maiores potências esportivas / Recent research sought to understand the organization of sports programs in different countries with international success. These studies report the existence of common relevant points for elite sport development. However, little has been discussed in the academic environment on the national level about this subject. This research has been carried out in two phases, namely A and B, with the following objectives: A - describing the organizational structure of marathon swimming in Brazil, with regard to the administrative aspects of sports system of marathon swimming and the development of support systems for athletes and coaches as proposed by Green and Oakley (2001); B - verifying the quality of detection, selection and promotion of sporting talent (DSPTE) in marathon swimming programs in Brazil with respect to the structure, processes and outcomes. At Phase A semi-structured questions applied to 2 Olympic coaches and 2 officials responsible for the organization of the sport being a representative of the national level and another at the regional level in Brazil and in the analysis of the results was used the method of the Collective Subject Discourse (DSC) proposed by Lefèvre and Lefèvre (2003). In phase B, a questionnaire developed by Rütten, Ziemainz and Röger (2005), which was translated and validated for the Portuguese language, along with 2 Olympic coaches, two officials responsible for the organization of the sport being a representative of the national level was applied and another the regional level in Brazil and 9 athletes (3 Olympics and 6 junior national team), data were analyzed descriptively using the median values of the data obtained with the use of SPSS version 20. According to the results it was found that governmental and non-governmental entities have different role among themselves due to lack of centralized organization and direct communication between high performance athlete and organizations at the national level. The system development and support for athletes and coaches of marathon swimming in Brazil happens despite not having a system development prepared by the sports talent bodies at the national level and BOC offer restricted mode, only one of two programs with technical improvement exists and another focused on the transition from athlete to sports sport career the end of career. In the detection, selection and promotion of sports talent for marathon swimming high performance programs in Brazil, has been verified in low quality results DSTE because this process is jointly developed the swimming provide migration to aquatic marathon only from 14 years and high quality cases for the PTE in which athletes who have achieved high performance sports are watched differently. Due to the lack of a national sports system for this purpose, it is suggested that it is verified the organizational structure of marathon swimming in other countries with international success to the example of comparative research on the sports system of other nations, it is possible to identify similarities to reduce the negative aspects and remain among the elite sports

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-28T20:38:40Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Maria Arlene de Almeida Moreira.pdf: 2581465 bytes, checksum: cbfd86e7eacf1943a53c7f646eae0b54 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-05-09 / The longevity became a reality reached by an increasing number of people in worldwide. In a qualitative approach, this study intends to focus on the race, while the sport accessible and inclusive currently practiced by a growing number of people. The rationale of the study is to identify and understand the participation of the seniors in marathon. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), physical activity is a factor that contributes to the quality of life in elderly. Without disregarding others co-factors that influence the quality of life, the study aims to identify the motivational aspects, the feelings and the changes present in different personal, familiar and social contexts of seniors' participation in marathons / A longevidade tornou-se uma realidade alcançada por um número crescente de pessoas no mundo inteiro. Numa abordagem qualitativa, o presente estudo pretende focalizar a corrida, enquanto modalidade esportiva acessível e inclusiva, atualmente praticada por um número crescente de pessoas. A justificativa do estudo é identificar e compreender a participação desse idoso em maratonas. Segundo a Organização Mundial de Saúde (OMS-WHO), a atividade física é um dos fatores que contribui para a qualidade de vida de idosos. Nesse sentido, sem desconsiderar outros cofatores influentes na qualidade de vida, o estudo pretende identificar os aspectos motivacionais, os sentimentos e as mudanças presentes nos contextos pessoal, familiar e social desses idosos com a participação em maratonas.

O principal objetivo deste estudo foi o de abordar o comportamento de atletas maratonistas, no que diz respeito à resistência psicológica durante o transcorrer da prova. O estudo restringiu-se a pesquisar opiniões de sete atletas, quatro do sexo masculino e três do feminino, que participavam de provas de maratonas promovidas pelas organizações que representam a modalidade no Brasil. Os dados foram coletados mediante a aplicação do instrumento denominado Inventário do Comportamento do Maratonista, criado e desenvolvido pela autora do presente estudo, visando compreender o processo de elaboração mental quanto à resistência psicológica dos atletas no transcorrer das provas. O instrumento é composto de sete questões objetivas e descritivas que possibilitam a obtenção de informações sobre fatores sociais e psicológicos dos atletas maratonistas e de como eles se comportam e descrevem as suas percepções (pensamentos, sentimentos e emoções) quanto à resistência psicológica. Os resultados alcançados foram baseados em 242 falas dos atletas foram classificadas em onze categorias cujos percentuais obtidos se desenvolveram da seguinte forma: persistência (19,4%), determinação (15,7%), precisão técnica (15,7%), seguidos de estratégia mental (10,7%), escolha da tarefa (9,9%), aspectos psicossomáticos (8,3%), conflito (7,4%), relação social (5,8%), religiosidade (4,9%), infraestrutura (1,2%) e aspecto físico (0,8%). Conclui-se que, o comportamento dos atletas maratonistas está estritamente relacionado com a resistência psicológica no que diz respeito a finalizar as prova de maratona / The main purpose of this study was to approach the behavior of marathon athletes, in what concerns the psychological resistance during the elapse of the test. The study restrained to research opinions of 7 athletes, four of the masculine sex and three of the feminine sex, that took part in tests of marathons promoted by the organizations that represent the category in Brazil. The data was collected by the application of the instrument denominated Inventory of the Marathonist Behavior, created and developed by the author of the present study, aiming to comprehend the process of mental elaboration as to the psychological resistance of the athletes during the elapse of the test. The instrument is composed of seven objective and descriptive questions that makes possible the attainment of information about social and psychological factors of marathonist athletes and about how they behave and describe their perceptions (thoughts, feelings and emotions) as to the psychological resistance. The achieved results were based in 242 speeches of the athletes, that were classified in eleven categories, in relation to which the speeches developed in the following way, in percentages: persistence (19,4%), determination (15,7%), technical accuracy (15,7%), mental strategy (10,7%), task choice (9,9%), psychosomatic aspects (8,3%), conflict (7,4%), social relation (5,8%), religiosity (4,9%), infrastructure (1,2%) and physical aspect (0,8%). It is concluded that the behavior of marathonist athletes is strictly related to the psychological resistance in what concerns ending the marathon test

Purpose: Monitor changes in force production, running economy (RE), and running kinematics (RK) in a highly trained marathon runner after beginning a strength training (ST) program. Methods: One marathon runner (M, 27 y, 165 cm, 53.3 kg, VO2pesk 67.43 ml/kg/min, PR 2:33:13) with no history of ST completed a 12-week block periodized ST program. Baseline and reliability testing was conducted over a two-month period prior to ST. The completed ST RPE and work (volume load*displacement) and running volume (km/wk) were monitored over the 12 weeks. The athlete performed an isometric mid-thigh pull to assess peak force (PF, N), rate of force development at 250 ms (RFD250), and net impulse at 250 ms (NI250) during baseline and throughout ST. The athlete performed a steady state test on a treadmill instrumented with the OptojumpTM optic sensor system to assess RE (ml/kg/km) and RK during baseline and throughout ST. Impact of the ST program was assessed by percent change of the variables during the taper from the baseline average and by the odds of a true change using the typical error and smallest worthwhile change. Results: PF improved (120:1 odds) by 17.11%, RFD250 improved (22:1 odds) by 24.73%, and NI250 improved (10:1 odds) by 16.70% before competition. Ground contact time decreased (7:1 odds) by 2.57%, flight time decreased (1:1 odds) by 1.49%, step rate increased (2:1 odds) by 2.28%, and step length decreased (57:1: odds) by 2.21%. RE improved (3:1 odds) by 2.09%. Conclusion: Improving a runner’s maximal strength and rate of force development may positively influence RK and RE.

<p><strong>Syfte och frågeställningar</strong></p><p> </p><p>Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka GIH-studenters kondition och jämföra den trend som finns på GIH gentemot trender för konditionen hos mönstrande samt löpare i Stockholm Marathon. De frågeställningar som användes var:</p><p>1. Hur har GIH-studenters maximala syreupptagningsförmåga förändrats från 1977 till 2008?</p><p>2. Hur har mäns arbetskapacitet under mönstringen förändrats mellan åren 1969-83 samt 1986-93?</p><p>3. Hur har medeltiden förändrats för de löpare som deltog i och slutförde Stockholm Marathon mellan åren 1979-2008?</p><p><strong><p>Metod</p></strong></p><p>Dels deltog vi i framtagande av ny data i egenskaper av testledare i ett projekt för att undersöka GIH-studenters maximala syreupptagningsförmåga under hösten 2008 (n=28). Dessa data jämfördes sedan med tidigare framtagna data från ett liknande test på GIH-studenter från 1977 (n=44). Resterande del av undersökningen var bearbetning av befintlig data. Totalt studerades 183 216 löpare i Stockholm Marathon samt i snitt 45 000 mönstrande för varje studerat år.</p><p><strong><p>Resultat</p></strong></p><p>De resultat som framkom av studien var att en negativ utveckling gick att utläsa på GIH-studenternas maximala syreupptagningsförmåga, från 4,50 l O2/min hos männen till 4,24 l O2/min, medan utvecklingen hos kvinnorna var minimal, 2,88 l O2/min till 2,86 l O2/min. Utvecklingen blev större när korrelation mellan vikt och syreupptagningsförmåga gjorts, 61,6ml O2/min*min-1 till 55,6ml O2/min*min-1 för männen medan en förändring från 47,8ml O2/min*min-1 till 44,9ml O2/min*min-1 hos kvinnorna kunde konstateras. Hos mönstrande män var utvecklingen tvådelad; under åren 1969-83 ökade arbetskapaciteten per kilo kroppsvikt något, 3,53W/kg till 3,69W/kg, medan det skedde en minskning mellan 1986 och 1993; 4,34W/kg till 4,17W/kg. För löpare i Stockholm Marathon ökade sluttiden stadigt mellan 1979 och 2008 från att ha legat i medel på 215 min för herrar 1979 till 243 min 2008. Motsvarande tider för damer låg 1979 på 233 min för att stiga till 257 min 2008.</p><p><strong><p>Slutsats</p></strong></p><p>Utvecklingen för konditionen hos GIH-studenter ligger väl i linje med befintlig forskning som visar på en försämring hos den manliga delen hos befolkningen mot en svagt negativ eller oförändrad kondition hos kvinnorna. Denna trend går dock inte att utläsa på bearbetad mönstringsdata, vars förändring var för liten för att statistiskt kunna säkerställas. En tydlig försämring uppmättes av sluttiden i Stockholm Marathon vilket tros bero på en försämring i konditionen hos löparna. De framtagna resultaten bekräftas i stort av tidigare forskning som visar på en försämring av konditionen men samtidigt visar statistik på att träningsfrekvensen inte sjunkit. Därför drar vi slutsatsen att en annan typ av träning är mer vanligt förekommande idag, såsom koordinations- och styrketräning. Detta är dock inte säkerställt utan en slutsats baserad på forskningsläget.</p><p> </p>