Almost all sandstone beds occurring in the Upper Miocene formations at the Los Angeles basin were deposited by turbidity currents. Primary textures and structures indicative of turbidites occur in fair abundance throughout all three Upper Miocene formations. All accessible outcrops of the Puente, Modelo, and Upper Miocene portion of the Monterey and Capistrano Formations were scrutinized for sandstone beds containing primary sedimentary structures. Through study of these structures, the direction of current movement was determined. The pattern of current movement displayed reveals that sediment was being transported into the Los Angeles basin from all sides. Current directions and mineralogic studies indicate that essentially three source areas were supplying sediment into the basin. These source areas are 1) the San Gabriel Mountains, 2) an area to the east of the Santa Ana Mountains, and 3) a ridge of metamorphic rock paralleling the present coast line. The majority of sediment was derived from an area in the San Gabriel Mountains located northeast or the basin. This is evidenced by the fact that the thickness, grain size, and total sand content of the Upper Miocene units decrease southwestward across the basin.

The study was conducted in the Estuarine Complex of Vaza-Barris River, an area near to city of Aracaju, Sergipe State, Brazil. The aim of this study is to analyze the pattern of occurrence, population structure and ecological aspects of H. reidi in order to find out ways for the conservation of these animals. In total 21 monthly samplings from September 2013 to May 2015 were carried out. 473 observations of seahorses were done in three sampling points: Riacho da Baleia point (total of 279 observations), Viral point (total of 105 observations) and Caruara point (total of 89 observations). The length of the seahorses observed ranged from 2.1 cm to 19.2 cm, and the overall length mean was 14.4 cm. All over the sample period more male individuals than female individuals were found likewise more adult individuals than juveniles. The population density showed significant differences according to the collection point, but this has not varied significantly over time. Individuals have been found in stage of the reproductive cycle in almost every month of sampling, and the reproductive peaks occurred in February 2014, July 2014 and October 2014. Starting January 2014, the markings were initiated for the observed organisms using elastomers and 232 individuals were marked. Through the mark-recapture, population density was estimated at 294 fish in Riacho da Baleia point, 69 fish in Viral point and 65 fish in Caruara point. The growth of the tracked organisms showed an average of 0.8 cm per month, and male and female individuals showed quite similar pattern of growth. The variations related to the growth pattern according to size classes was obtained and it showed the highest average growth rates in April, May and June. In total 26 couples, 11 pairs of males, 3 pairs of females, two pairs of males with juveniles and nine groups with three or more seahorses were observed. Throughout time, five couples, two pairs of male with juvenile, in the same way that a pair of males, remained together. The data about the clustering of seahorses indicate that there is fidelity to the partner, and demonstrate the highly structured social behavior of seahorses. The spatial fish distribution in the environment was monitored and the results corroborate the literature as it relates to loyalty to the habitat. No fish recaptured moved to another point monitored within the estuary. It was concluded that there is a population in the estuary of the Vaza-Barris River of seahorses H. reidi which is found throughout the year distributed in patches of low mobility, moving according to the tide and changing location, but always remaining within the same areas. The study area gets the impact of various anthropogenic sources, such as professional and recreational fishing, floating bars, boats navigation and jet-skis, construction of houses and condominiums, requiring actions and policies that limit the multiple uses of the region in order to conserve the biota in general and specifically the species H. reidi, which appears today as vulnerable to extinction. The areas used as home for the populations of seahorses must be delineated and human activities with the greatest impact should be avoided in those locations. Also the removal of mangrove vegetation should be avoided since this substrate is essential for the Seahorses continue surviving on such sites. Through the implementation of community management projects of fishery resources, the H. reidi can become a flagship species for the estuary of the Vaza-Barris River, allowing the implementation of conservation projects and ecotourism in the region. / O trabalho foi realizado no Complexo Estuarino do Rio Vaza-Barris, área próxima à cidade de Aracaju. O objetivo geral deste estudo é analisar o padrão de ocorrência, estrutura populacional e aspectos ecológicos do Hippocampus reidi (GINSBURG, 1933), de modo a buscar a conservação desses peixes. Foram realizadas 21 coletas mensais, de setembro de 2013 até maio de 2015. Foram feitas 473 observações de cavalos-marinhos, em três pontos de amostragem: Riacho da Baleia, com 279 observações, Viral, com 105 observações e Caruara, com 89 observações. O comprimento dos cavalos-marinhos observados variou de 2,1 cm até 19,2 cm, e a média geral foi de 14,4 cm. Em todo o período amostral, foram encontrados mais indivíduos machos que fêmeas, e muito mais indivíduos adultos que juvenis. A densidade populacional variou significativamente de acordo com o ponto de coleta, porém esta não variou significativamente ao longo do tempo. Foram encontrados indivíduos em estágio do ciclo reprodutivo em quase todos os meses de amostragem, sendo que os picos de reprodução ocorreram em fevereiro de 2014, julho de 2014 e outubro de 2014. A partir de janeiro de 2014, foram iniciadas as marcações com elastômeros nos peixes observados, sendo marcados 232 indivíduos. Através da marcação e recaptura, a densidade populacional foi estimada em 294 peixes no Riacho da Baleia, 69 no Viral e 65 no Caruara. Em média, o crescimento dos peixes monitorados foi de 0,8 cm por mês, sendo que fêmeas e machos tiveram o padrão de crescimento bem próximos. Já o padrão de crescimento de acordo com as classes de tamanho obteve variação. As maiores médias nas taxas de crescimento ocorreram em abril, maio e junho. Foram observados 26 casais, 11 duplas de machos, 3 duplas de fêmeas, duas duplas de machos com indivíduos juvenis e nove grupos com três ou mais cavalos-marinhos. Ao longo do tempo, cinco casais se mantiveram juntos, duas duplas de machos com juvenis, e uma dupla de machos. Os dados relacionados ao agrupamento dos cavalos-marinhos indicam que existe fidelidade ao parceiro, e demonstram o comportamento social altamente estruturado dos cavalos-marinhos. A distribuição dos peixes no ambiente foi monitorada, e os dados corroboram a literatura na questão relacionada à fidelidade ao hábitat. Nenhum peixe recapturado se locomoveu para outro ponto monitorado do estuário. Conclui-se que existe uma população de cavalos-marinhos da espécie H. reidi distribuída em manchas no estuário do rio Vaza-Barris, que é encontrada ao longo de todo ano, e que possui baixa mobilidade, e se movimenta de acordo com a maré, mudando de localização, mas permanecendo sempre nas mesmas regiões. A área estudada possui diversas fontes de impacto antrópico, tais como pesca profissional e recreativa, bares flutuantes, navegação de lanchas e jet-skis, construção de casas e condomínios, e necessita de ações e políticas que limitem os diferentes usos desses locais, com o objetivo de conservar a biota em geral, e especificamente, a espécie H. reidi, que figura atualmente como vulnerável à extinção. As áreas de residência dessas populações de cavalos-marinhos devem ser delimitadas e atividades antrópicas de maior impacto devem ser evitadas. Além disso, deve-se evitar a supressão da vegetação de manguezal, já que esse substrato é fundamental para que os cavalosmarinhos continuem nestes locais. Através da implantação de projetos de gestão comunitária de recursos pesqueiros, o H. reidi pode se tornar uma espécie bandeira para o estuário do Rio Vaza-Barris, possibilitando a execução de projetos de conservação e ecoturismo na região.

Ackumuleringen av plast och mikroplast i miljön är idag en globalt aktuell fråga. Forskning kring mikroplast och dess påverkan på miljö och biota har ökat kraftigt det senaste decenniet. En av de största utsläppskällorna till mikroplast är slitage från vägtrafiken, speciellt från däck, men mikroplast kan även komma från vägmarkeringar. Vägmarkeringar innehåller plastpolymerer (som bindemedel), fyllnadsmedel, pigment och tillsatsämnen (additiv), och ofta ingår även glaspärlor. Vissa ämnen kan ge en negativ påverkan på människa och miljö. I dagsläget saknas det data för att kunna kartlägga i vilken omfattning vägmarkeringsslitage bidrar till spridning av mikroplaster samt för att bedöma om och hur det skulle kunna påverka miljön och vattenlevande organismer. I detta examensarbete har toxicitetstest av lakvatten från vägmarkeringsprodukter utförts med algen Raphidocelis subcapitata för att studera om de är toxiska samt om det finns någon skillnad mellan olika vägmarkeringsprodukter. Partiklar från fyra olika typer av vägmarkeringsprodukter (prefabricerad termoplast, varmapplicerad termoplast, vattenbaserad akrylatfärg och 2-komponentsakrylatfärg) genererades och lakades var för sig med skakning i avjoniserat vatten under 24 timmar. Lakvattnen utan partiklar användes sedan till algtillväxthämningstest. Algerna exponerades under 72 timmar för lakvatten i olika koncentrationer, där den högsta motsvarade 100 g vägmarkeringspartiklar per liter, och algtillväxt mättes. Effektmåtten var maximal tillväxthastighet och lag-fas och dessutom analyserades korrelationen mellan dem som ett mått för anpassningseffektivitet. De fyra lakvattnen påverkade lag-fas och/eller tillväxthastighet i olika omfattning och medförde antingen inhibering eller stimulering av algtillväxten. Lakvattnet från den vattenbaserade akrylatfärgen påvisade störst inhibering av tillväxt och var även det mest toxiska eftersom ingen tillväxtanpassning skedde. För övriga lakvatten påvisades olika grad av anpassningseffektivitet av alger vid exponering. Dock krävs mer ingående statistisk utvärdering för att åtskilja de två lakvatten som hade minst påverkan, dvs. från den prefabricerade och den varmapplicerade termoplasten.  Detta är enbart en första studie. Upprepade tester med fler vägmarkeringsprodukter och fler tester med andra organismer, såsom bakterier, kärlväxter, kräftdjur och fisk, krävs för att bättre kunna utreda om och hur olika vägmarkeringar kan påverka biota. För ytterligare studier skulle det vara intressant att utvärdera vilka ämnen i vägmarkeringar som kan påverka miljön och om dessa skulle kunna ersättas med andra, mindre giftiga ämnen. / The accumulation of plastic and microplastics in the environment is a current global issue. Research on microplastics and its impact on the environment and biota has increased rapidly in the last decade. One of the largest sources of microplastics is wear from road traffic, especially tires, but they can also originate from road markings. Road markings contain plastic polymers (as a binder), fillers, pigments, and additives, and often also glass beads. Some substances may have a negative impact on humans and the environment. At present, there are no data to map the extent to which wear from road markings contributes to the emissions of microplastics, or to assess the effect they might cause on the environment and aquatic organisms. In this thesis, toxicity tests on leachates from road marking products were conducted on the alga Raphidocelis subcapitata to study the effect on the algae and if it differs between the different products.  Particles from four types of road marking products (prefabricated thermoplastic, hot-applied thermoplastic, acrylic water-based paint, and 2-component acrylic paint) were generated and leached separately by shaking in deionized water for 24 hours.  The leachates without particles were used in the standard algal growth inhibition tests. The algae were exposed for 72 hours to the leachates in different concentrations, with the highest corresponding to 100 g road marking particles per liter, and algal growth was monitored. Endpoints used were maximum growth rate and lag phase and, in addition, their correlation was analyzed as an indicator for adaptation capacity. The four leachates affected lag phase and/or growth rate to a varying extent and caused inhibition or stimulation of algae growth. Exposure to leachate from the water-based acrylic paint showed most inhibition of growth and was also the most toxic as no growth adaptation was observed. For the other tests, different rates of adaptation efficiency of the algae growth were found. However, more detailed statistical evaluation is needed to differentiate between the two leachates that had the least effect, i.e. the prefabricated and the hot-applied thermoplastic. This is only a first study. More tests with more road marking products and with other organisms, such as bacteria, vascular plants, crustaceans, and fish, are required to better understand if and how different road markings could affect biota. Additionally, an evaluation of what substances in road marking materials may cause effects and whether these can be replaced by other, less toxic substances, would be of interest.

ABSTRACT Social relationships, habitat utilisation and life history characteristics provide a framework which enables the survival of populations in fluctuating ecological conditions. An understanding of behavioural ecology is critical to the implementation of Natural Resource Management strategies if they are to succeed in their conservation efforts during the emergence of climate change. Egernia whitii from Wedge Island in the Spencer Gulf of South Australia were used as a model system to investigate the interaction of life history traits, scat piling behaviour and chemosensory communication in social lizards. Juveniles typically took ¡Ý 3 years to reach sexual maturity and the results of skeletochronological studies suggested longevity of ¡Ý 13 years. Combined with a mean litter size of 2.2, a pregnancy rate estimated at 75% of eligible females during short-term studies, and highly stable groups, this information suggests several life history features. Prolonged juvenile development and adult longevity may be prerequisite to the development of parental care. Parental care may, in turn, be the determining factor that facilitates the formation of small family groups. In E. whitii parental care takes the form of foetal and neonatal provisioning and tolerance of juveniles by small family or social groups within established resource areas. Presumably, resident juveniles also benefit from adult territorialism. Research on birds suggests that low adult mortality predisposes cooperative breeding or social grouping in birds, and life history traits and ecological factors appear to act together to facilitate cooperative systems. E. whitii practice scat piling both individually and in small groups. Social benefits arising from signalling could confer both cooperative and competitive benefits. Permanent territorial markers have the potential to benefit conspecifics, congenerics and other species. The high incidence of a skink species (E. whitii) refuging with a gecko species (N. milii) on Wedge Island provides an example of interspecific cooperation. The diurnal refuge of the nocturnal gecko is a useful transient shelter for the diurnal skink. Scat piling may release a species ¡®signature¡¯ for each group that allows mutual recognition. Scat piling also facilitates intraspecific scent marking by individual members, which has the potential to indicate relatedness, or social or sexual status within the group. The discovery of cloacal scent marking activity is new to the Egernia genus. E. Whitii differentiate between their own scats, and conspecific and congeneric scats. They scent mark at the site of conspecific scats, and males and females differ in their response to scent cues over time. Scat piling has the potential to make information concerning the social environment available to dispersing transient and potential immigrant conspecifics, enabling settlement choices to be made. This thesis explores some of the behavioural strategies employed by E. whitii to reduce risks to individuals within groups and between groups. Scents eliciting a range of behavioural responses relevant to the formation of adaptive social groupings, reproductive activity, and juvenile protection until maturity and dispersal are likely to be present in this species. Tests confirming chemosensory cues that differentiate sex, kin and age would be an interesting addition to current knowledge. The interaction of delayed maturity, parental care, sociality, chemosensory communication and scat piling highlights the sophistication of this species¡¯ behaviour. An alternative method for permanently marking lizards was developed. Persistence, reliability and individual discrimination were demonstrated using photographic identification and the method was shown to be reliable for broad-scale application by researchers. Naturally occurring toe loss in the field provided a context against which to examine this alternative identification method and revealed the need to further investigate the consequences of routine toe clipping, as this practice appears to diminish survivorship.

Das Gedächtnis speichert nicht nur Informationen, sondern mitunter auch die Umstände, in denen diese Informationen erworben wurden, sogenannte Kontextinformationen. Die vorliegende Arbeit hat daher zum Ziel, anhand von Laboraufgaben und anhand einer komplexen sporttechnischen Fertigkeit den Einblick in die Wirkweise von Kontextinformationen im motorischen Bereich zu vertiefen und theoretische Modelle zu prüfen. In zwei Experimenten wurde zunächst der Frage nachgegangen, ob in-zidentelle Kontextinformation eine diskriminative Funktion einnehmen und den Abruf zweier ähnlicher Sequenzen erleichtern kann. Es wurde ein Ausbleiben der Interferenz-Effekte aufgrund der inzidentellen Kontextinformationen vermutet. Beide Experimente erfolgten im Labor im Design des Interferenzparadigmas. In Laborexperiment 1 (N = 30) lernten die Probanden der Experimentalgruppen an zwei aufeinanderfolgenden Tagen je eine dynamische Bewegungssequenz. Die Probanden der Kontrollgruppen lernten entweder nur die erste Sequenz (KG1) oder nur die zweite (KG2). Für alle Probanden waren die Sequenzen jeweils mit einer Kontextinformation verknüpft. An Tag 3 wurden Retentions- und Transfertests durchgeführt. Durch inzidentelle Kontextinformation alleine konnte keine Kontextabhängigkeit erzielt und retroaktive Interferenzeffekte nicht verhindert werden. In Laborexperiment II (N = 20) stellte sich für die zweite Bewegungssequenz durch zusätzlich erzeugte Intention eine höhere Wiedererkennungsleistung sowie Kontextabhängigkeit ein, dennoch wiesen die Probanden retroaktive Interferenzeffekte auf. Zusätzlich trat proaktive Interferenz auf (Experiment II). Zum anderen ermöglichte es eine umfangreiche Regeländerung im Basketball, eine mögliche Kontextabhängigkeit in einer komplexen sporttech-nischen Fertigkeit zu untersuchen. Im daraus entwickelten Feldexperiment mit N = 20 Basketballern mit hoher Expertise zum 3-Punkte-Wurf konnte gezeigt werden, dass Bodenmarkierungen als inzidentelle Kontextinformationen zu begreifen sind und Einfluss auf die Leistung haben. Die Ergebnisse der Arbeit werden in Beziehung zu aktuellen Ergebnissen der Literatur sowie in Bezug auf das perception-control-Modell von Glover (2004) und dem MOSAIC-Modell von Wolpert und Kawato (1998) diskutiert. Praktische Ableitungen werden dargestellt. / Our memory not only stores information that seem important to us but also circumstances, surroundings where information are gathered – so called contextual information. The present work therefore aims to sharpen the understanding of the mechanisms underpinning this phenomenon in the field of motor learning and to investigate different theoretical models by two experiments with sequence learning tasks and additionally by a complex sports skill. Two experiments were conducted to investigate any discriminative character of incidental context information which would facilitate the recall of two similar movement sequences. An absence of interference-effects was hypothesized. Both experiments took place in accordance with a pro-/retroactive interference design. In experiment 1 (N = 30) subjects of the experimental group (EG) learned two dynamic sequences (S1 and S2) on two successive days while members of the control groups only learned either S1 or S2. Incidental Context information was provided by different background colors. On day 3 retention and transfertests were conducted for all groups. Results showed that incidental Context information alone could not avoid retroactive interference effect (Experiment 1). Directing participants’ attention towards the incidental contexts (Experiment 2) resulted in higher recognition performance and context dependency. Nevertheless, retroactive interference effects were found. Surprisingly, participants of the EG additionally showed proactive interference effects. A substantial change in Basketball rules provided the chance to systematically study the influence of visual context information on complex motor skill. In the first step of this experiment twenty Basketball players took 3-point-shots from the old distance. In a second step these experts took 3-points shots from the new, greater distance with either the old floor-markings or the new floor-markings. Results of this experiment show that floor markings do serve as incidental context information and do influence athlete’s performance. The Results of the present work are discussed in reference to other studies and two models, namely Glover’s perception-control-model (2004) and the MOSAIC-modell from Wolpert and Kawato (1998).

Das Gedächtnis speichert nicht nur Informationen, sondern mitunter auch die Umstände, in denen diese Informationen erworben wurden, sogenannte Kontextinformationen. Die vorliegende Arbeit hat daher zum Ziel, anhand von Laboraufgaben und anhand einer komplexen sporttechnischen Fertigkeit den Einblick in die Wirkweise von Kontextinformationen im motorischen Bereich zu vertiefen und theoretische Modelle zu prüfen. In zwei Experimenten wurde zunächst der Frage nachgegangen, ob in-zidentelle Kontextinformation eine diskriminative Funktion einnehmen und den Abruf zweier ähnlicher Sequenzen erleichtern kann. Es wurde ein Ausbleiben der Interferenz-Effekte aufgrund der inzidentellen Kontextinformationen vermutet. Beide Experimente erfolgten im Labor im Design des Interferenzparadigmas. In Laborexperiment 1 (N = 30) lernten die Probanden der Experimentalgruppen an zwei aufeinanderfolgenden Tagen je eine dynamische Bewegungssequenz. Die Probanden der Kontrollgruppen lernten entweder nur die erste Sequenz (KG1) oder nur die zweite (KG2). Für alle Probanden waren die Sequenzen jeweils mit einer Kontextinformation verknüpft. An Tag 3 wurden Retentions- und Transfertests durchgeführt. Durch inzidentelle Kontextinformation alleine konnte keine Kontextabhängigkeit erzielt und retroaktive Interferenzeffekte nicht verhindert werden. In Laborexperiment II (N = 20) stellte sich für die zweite Bewegungssequenz durch zusätzlich erzeugte Intention eine höhere Wiedererkennungsleistung sowie Kontextabhängigkeit ein, dennoch wiesen die Probanden retroaktive Interferenzeffekte auf. Zusätzlich trat proaktive Interferenz auf (Experiment II). Zum anderen ermöglichte es eine umfangreiche Regeländerung im Basketball, eine mögliche Kontextabhängigkeit in einer komplexen sporttech-nischen Fertigkeit zu untersuchen. Im daraus entwickelten Feldexperiment mit N = 20 Basketballern mit hoher Expertise zum 3-Punkte-Wurf konnte gezeigt werden, dass Bodenmarkierungen als inzidentelle Kontextinformationen zu begreifen sind und Einfluss auf die Leistung haben. Die Ergebnisse der Arbeit werden in Beziehung zu aktuellen Ergebnissen der Literatur sowie in Bezug auf das perception-control-Modell von Glover (2004) und dem MOSAIC-Modell von Wolpert und Kawato (1998) diskutiert. Praktische Ableitungen werden dargestellt.:Bibliographische Beschreibung und Referat Danksagung 1 KENNZEICHNUNG DES PROBLEMFELDES 1.1 Einleitung 2 KONTEXTABHÄNGIGKEIT VON LERNINHALTEN 2.1 Definition von Kontext 2.1.1 Unterschiede zum Paradigma des Contextual Interference 2.2 Kontextabhängigkeit im verbalen Lernen 2.3 Kontextabhängigkeit im motorischen Lernen 2.4 Modelle zu Wirkmechanismen des Kontextes 2.4.1 Das MOSAIC-Modell von Wolpert und Kawato 2.4.2 Das Planing-Control-Modell von Glover 2.4.3 Vergleich beider Modelle und Ableitung für die Untersuchungen 2.5 Forschungsfragen 3 LABOREXPERIMENT I 3.1 Hypothesen Laborexperiment I 3.2 Methode 3.2.1 Apparatur 3.2.2 Prozedur / Ablauf 3.2.3 Teilnehmer 3.3 Ergebnisse Laborexperiment I 3.3.1 Aneignung 3.3.2 Ergebnisse hinsichtlich der Retentions- und Transfertests 3.3.2.1 Kontexteffekte 3.3.2.2 Retro- und Proaktive Interferenzeffekte 3.3.2.3 Post-experimentelles Interview 3.4 Diskussion Laborexperiment I 3.5 Folgerungen aus Laborexperiment I 4 LABOREXPERIMENT II 4.1 Stärkung der Assoziation zwischen inzidentellem Kontextreiz und Bewegungsaufgabe 4.2 Reproduktion versus Wiedererkennen 4.3 Hypothesen Laborexperiment II 4.4 Methode 4.4.1 Apparatur 4.4.2 Prozedur / Ablauf 4.4.3 Teilnehmer 4.5 Ergebnisse Laborexperiment II 4.5.1 Aneignung 4.5.2 Ergebnisse hinsichtlich Retentions- und Transfertests 4.5.2.1 Kontext-/ Intentionseffekte 4.5.3 Retro- und Proaktive Interferenzeffekte 4.5.4 Einfluss auf Wiedererkennungsleistung 4.6 Diskussion Laborexperiment II 4.7 Übergreifende Diskussion der Laborexperimente 4.8 Diskussion der Modelle PCM und MOSAIC auf Grundlage der Ergebnisse aus den Laborexperimenten I und II 4.8.1 Einschätzung des MOSAIC auf Grundlage der Ergebnisse aus den Laborexperimenten I und II 4.8.2 Einschätzung des MOSAIC auf Grundlage der Ergebnisse aus den Laborexperimenten I und II 4.9 Zusammenfassung der Laborexperimente und Ausblick 5 FELDEXPERIMENT 5.1 Ausgangs-Situation 5.1.1 3-Punkte-Wurf sowie Einflussfaktoren der Leistung 5.2 Hypothese 5.3 Methodik 5.4 Teilnehmer 5.4.1 Experimenteller Aufbau und Design 5.4.2 Ablauf 5.4.3 Datenerfassung und statistische Analysen 5.5 Ergebnisse Feldexperiment 5.5.1 Trefferquote 5.5.2 Wurftendenz 5.5.3 Wurftendenz im Verlauf 5.6 Diskussion Feldexperiment 5.7 Diskussion der Ergebnisse des Feldexperiments im Hinblick auf die Modelle PCM und MOSAIC 5.7.1 Einschätzung des PCM aufgrund des Feldexperiments 5.7.2 Einschätzung des MOSAIC-Modells aufgrund des Feldexperiments 6 ÜBERGREIFENDE DISKUSSION DER EIGENEN UNTERSUCHUNGEN 6.1 Generelle Diskussion der Ergebnisse der Arbeit und Ausblick 6.2 Einschätzung der Modelle PCM und MOSAIC auf Grundlage der Ergebnisse der eigenen Arbeit 6.2.1 Einschätzung des PCM auf Grundlage der vorgelegten Ergebnisse 6.2.2 Einschätzung des MOSAIC-Modells auf Grundlage der vorgelegten Ergebnisse 6.2.3 Fazit bezüglich beider Modelle 7 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG LITERATURVERZEICHNIS ABKÜRZUNGSVERZEICHNIS ABILDUNGSVERZEICHNIS ANHANGSVERZEICHNIS ANHANG A ANHANG B ANHANG C ANHANG D / Our memory not only stores information that seem important to us but also circumstances, surroundings where information are gathered – so called contextual information. The present work therefore aims to sharpen the understanding of the mechanisms underpinning this phenomenon in the field of motor learning and to investigate different theoretical models by two experiments with sequence learning tasks and additionally by a complex sports skill. Two experiments were conducted to investigate any discriminative character of incidental context information which would facilitate the recall of two similar movement sequences. An absence of interference-effects was hypothesized. Both experiments took place in accordance with a pro-/retroactive interference design. In experiment 1 (N = 30) subjects of the experimental group (EG) learned two dynamic sequences (S1 and S2) on two successive days while members of the control groups only learned either S1 or S2. Incidental Context information was provided by different background colors. On day 3 retention and transfertests were conducted for all groups. Results showed that incidental Context information alone could not avoid retroactive interference effect (Experiment 1). Directing participants’ attention towards the incidental contexts (Experiment 2) resulted in higher recognition performance and context dependency. Nevertheless, retroactive interference effects were found. Surprisingly, participants of the EG additionally showed proactive interference effects. A substantial change in Basketball rules provided the chance to systematically study the influence of visual context information on complex motor skill. In the first step of this experiment twenty Basketball players took 3-point-shots from the old distance. In a second step these experts took 3-points shots from the new, greater distance with either the old floor-markings or the new floor-markings. Results of this experiment show that floor markings do serve as incidental context information and do influence athlete’s performance. The Results of the present work are discussed in reference to other studies and two models, namely Glover’s perception-control-model (2004) and the MOSAIC-modell from Wolpert and Kawato (1998).:Bibliographische Beschreibung und Referat Danksagung 1 KENNZEICHNUNG DES PROBLEMFELDES 1.1 Einleitung 2 KONTEXTABHÄNGIGKEIT VON LERNINHALTEN 2.1 Definition von Kontext 2.1.1 Unterschiede zum Paradigma des Contextual Interference 2.2 Kontextabhängigkeit im verbalen Lernen 2.3 Kontextabhängigkeit im motorischen Lernen 2.4 Modelle zu Wirkmechanismen des Kontextes 2.4.1 Das MOSAIC-Modell von Wolpert und Kawato 2.4.2 Das Planing-Control-Modell von Glover 2.4.3 Vergleich beider Modelle und Ableitung für die Untersuchungen 2.5 Forschungsfragen 3 LABOREXPERIMENT I 3.1 Hypothesen Laborexperiment I 3.2 Methode 3.2.1 Apparatur 3.2.2 Prozedur / Ablauf 3.2.3 Teilnehmer 3.3 Ergebnisse Laborexperiment I 3.3.1 Aneignung 3.3.2 Ergebnisse hinsichtlich der Retentions- und Transfertests 3.3.2.1 Kontexteffekte 3.3.2.2 Retro- und Proaktive Interferenzeffekte 3.3.2.3 Post-experimentelles Interview 3.4 Diskussion Laborexperiment I 3.5 Folgerungen aus Laborexperiment I 4 LABOREXPERIMENT II 4.1 Stärkung der Assoziation zwischen inzidentellem Kontextreiz und Bewegungsaufgabe 4.2 Reproduktion versus Wiedererkennen 4.3 Hypothesen Laborexperiment II 4.4 Methode 4.4.1 Apparatur 4.4.2 Prozedur / Ablauf 4.4.3 Teilnehmer 4.5 Ergebnisse Laborexperiment II 4.5.1 Aneignung 4.5.2 Ergebnisse hinsichtlich Retentions- und Transfertests 4.5.2.1 Kontext-/ Intentionseffekte 4.5.3 Retro- und Proaktive Interferenzeffekte 4.5.4 Einfluss auf Wiedererkennungsleistung 4.6 Diskussion Laborexperiment II 4.7 Übergreifende Diskussion der Laborexperimente 4.8 Diskussion der Modelle PCM und MOSAIC auf Grundlage der Ergebnisse aus den Laborexperimenten I und II 4.8.1 Einschätzung des MOSAIC auf Grundlage der Ergebnisse aus den Laborexperimenten I und II 4.8.2 Einschätzung des MOSAIC auf Grundlage der Ergebnisse aus den Laborexperimenten I und II 4.9 Zusammenfassung der Laborexperimente und Ausblick 5 FELDEXPERIMENT 5.1 Ausgangs-Situation 5.1.1 3-Punkte-Wurf sowie Einflussfaktoren der Leistung 5.2 Hypothese 5.3 Methodik 5.4 Teilnehmer 5.4.1 Experimenteller Aufbau und Design 5.4.2 Ablauf 5.4.3 Datenerfassung und statistische Analysen 5.5 Ergebnisse Feldexperiment 5.5.1 Trefferquote 5.5.2 Wurftendenz 5.5.3 Wurftendenz im Verlauf 5.6 Diskussion Feldexperiment 5.7 Diskussion der Ergebnisse des Feldexperiments im Hinblick auf die Modelle PCM und MOSAIC 5.7.1 Einschätzung des PCM aufgrund des Feldexperiments 5.7.2 Einschätzung des MOSAIC-Modells aufgrund des Feldexperiments 6 ÜBERGREIFENDE DISKUSSION DER EIGENEN UNTERSUCHUNGEN 6.1 Generelle Diskussion der Ergebnisse der Arbeit und Ausblick 6.2 Einschätzung der Modelle PCM und MOSAIC auf Grundlage der Ergebnisse der eigenen Arbeit 6.2.1 Einschätzung des PCM auf Grundlage der vorgelegten Ergebnisse 6.2.2 Einschätzung des MOSAIC-Modells auf Grundlage der vorgelegten Ergebnisse 6.2.3 Fazit bezüglich beider Modelle 7 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG LITERATURVERZEICHNIS ABKÜRZUNGSVERZEICHNIS ABILDUNGSVERZEICHNIS ANHANGSVERZEICHNIS ANHANG A ANHANG B ANHANG C ANHANG D

CAPITULO 1 â Perfil dos carpinteiros artesanais de embarcaÃÃes a vela do litoral do estado do Cearà No contexto mundial, durante o sÃculo XV, a construÃÃo naval das embarcaÃÃes veleiras passaram por evoluÃÃes que propiciaram o empreendimento de grandes viagens. Chegando ao Brasil iniciou-se um longo processo de interaÃÃo construtiva das embarcaÃÃes locais com o conhecimento europeu. As jangadas inicialmente construÃdas sem velas evoluÃram e se propagaram por todo o nordeste e, principalmente no Cearà como embarcaÃÃo de pesca artesanal, evoluindo das jangadas de troncos Ãs atuais de tÃbuas, assim como ocorreu evoluÃÃo construtiva artesanal das canoas e botes. O litoral cearense foi percorrido no perÃodo de setembro de 2010 a maio de 2012, identificando-se in loco os tipos de embarcaÃÃes construÃdas, e localizando e entrevistando construtores artesanais de embarcaÃÃes a vela, foco principal deste trabalho. Foram entrevistados 36 carpinteiros de comprovado reconhecimento local, que responderam questionÃrio estruturado com perguntas direcionadas diretamente à identificaÃÃo do construtor artesanal, seu perfil profissional e da sua arte construtiva, permitindo registros fotogrÃficos, filmagens e gravaÃÃes. Os dados de cada questionÃrio foram transcritos para planilhas eletrÃnicas e analisadas, combinando com as gravaÃÃes de entrevistas transcritas e das filmagens. A pesquisa constatou a baixa escolaridade dos carpinteiros artesanais entrevistados, com 44% de alfabetizados e 42% de analfabetos; a inexistÃncia de qualquer registro construtivo empregado; mÃdia de idade; media de tempo de trabalho e frequÃncia da distribuiÃÃo do tempo de trabalho entre os carpinteiros entrevistados; influÃncia e origem do aprendizado e ausÃncia de enquadramento funcional destes jà que nÃo se aposentam como construtores artesanais. Resultados importantes foram obtidos sobre o perfil do carpinteiro artesanal cearense, considerados importantes para a manutenÃÃo da tradiÃÃo cultural de suas tÃcnicas aplicadas à construÃÃo de embarcaÃÃes a vela, e que compÃem o patrimÃnio histÃrico e socioeconÃmico do estado. CAPITULO 2 â A construÃÃo dos diferentes tipos de embarcaÃÃes a vela do litoral do estado do Cearà As embarcaÃÃes a vela sÃo usadas na pesca desde a Idade MÃdia e foram introduzidas no Brasil no inÃcio do descobrimento. No CearÃ, a frota veleira à constituÃda por jangadas, paquetes, canoas e botes, e este estudo objetivou descrever os aspectos e processo construtivos destas embarcaÃÃes, e verificar a existÃncia de diferenciaÃÃo entre localidades quanto aos custos, tempo de construÃÃo, materiais, ferramentas manuais, posicionamento dos mastros com os tipos e tamanhos de vela e elaboraÃÃo de planos de linhas. A metodologia constou de levantamentos de dados in loco, no perÃodo de maio 2010 a dezembro de 2012, com entrevistas com 36 carpinteiros artesanais em 25 localidades de praia de dezoito municÃpios, e aplicaÃÃo de questionÃrios e registros por gravaÃÃo, fotografia e filmagem. O mÃtodo construtivo adotado pelos construtores à o do âesqueleto primeiroâ, ao qual os diversos componentes sÃo acrescentados. O principio para a construÃÃo dos botes triÃngulo e bastardo à o mesmo adotado por toda a forÃa de trabalho, que sÃo idÃnticos no aspecto construtivo e de estrutura de casco, diferem no tipo de mastro e vela, tendo o bastardo um mastro fixo com vela latina bastarda e o bote triÃngulo vela latina triangular. Os custos de construÃÃo variam em ordem decrescente para botes, jangadas, canoas e paquetes, determinados pelo comprimento da embarcaÃÃo e tipo de madeira. Pontualmente, registrou-se em Bitupità a existÃncia da vela quadrangular latina, denominada de âvela quatro punhosâ, envergada em mastro bastardo nas canoas de curral. CAPITULO 3 â A navegaÃÃo praticada por mestres marcadores nas embarcaÃÃes a vela no estado do Cearà A orientaÃÃo praticada a bordo de embarcaÃÃes veleiras para navegaÃÃo e pesca utiliza referÃncias de terra para compor as linhas de posiÃÃo denominadas caminho e assento que, ao se cruzarem, determinam o local desejado. Esta atividade vem acontecendo desde a existÃncia da jangada de piÃba e se perpetua por transmissÃo entre geraÃÃes. O estudo foi desenvolvido com mestres marcadores de trÃs localidades, Baleia, Fortaleza e Redonda, onde predominam canoas, jangadas e botes, respectivamente. A prÃtica desta modalidade de navegaÃÃo à idÃntica para os diferentes tipos de embarcaÃÃo e diferem pouco entre as localidades estudadas. O exercÃcio da orientaÃÃo exige que o mestre marcador tenha boa visÃo e memÃria para encontrar caminho e assento, alÃm de sofrer restriÃÃes na ausÃncia da luz solar. Essa atividade à iniciada pelos marcadores ainda na juventude, e esses conhecimentos sÃo adquiridos independentes do grau de instruÃÃo e se consolidam tanto pelo exercÃcio da pesca quando pela experiÃncia adquirida. A observaÃÃo de estrelas e planetas revela a direÃÃo do caminho de volta ao porto de origem tendo a estrela do porto vÃrias denominaÃÃes no litoral cearense. A falta de visibilidade do litoral, ocasionada por chuva, cerraÃÃo ou outros fatores, interfere negativamente na identificaÃÃo de pontos de referÃncia existentes no litoral. A marcaÃÃo terrestre vem sendo gradativamente substituÃda pelo uso do GPS na localizaÃÃo dos pesqueiros mais produtivos, com grande aceitaÃÃo pelos mais jovens. O baixo preÃo e eficiÃncia comprovada desse equipamento tÃm justificado sua difusÃo ao longo de todo o litoral do CearÃ. CAPITULO 4 â EmbarcaÃÃes a vela do litoral do estado do CearÃ, distribuiÃÃo espacial da frota e da produÃÃo pesqueira O Cearà possui 573 km de litoral, distribuÃdo por 20 municÃpios costeiros e conta com 113 localidades de pesca estuarina e marinha. Este estudo se baseia nos seguintes dados estatÃsticos do Programa ESTATPESCA a- composiÃÃo da frota por tipo de barco e municÃpio; b- produÃÃo de pescado por tipo de barco e municÃpio; c- produÃÃo das principais espÃcies de peixe por tipo de embarcaÃÃo. Foi feita a descriÃÃo das caracterÃsticas das embarcaÃÃes a vela do Cearà de uma forma mais detalhada que as dividiu em jangadas ocada e de isopor; paquetes ocado e de isopor; canoa de Paracuru; canoa de Moitas-Baleia; canoa de Camocim (bianas); Canoa de Acarau-PreÃ-BitupitÃ; canoas de currais de BitupitÃ; canoa-paquete de Fleixeiras-Guagiru e botes triangulo e bastardo. Os resultados mostram que os paquetes sÃo maioria numÃrica e com maior distribuiÃÃo geogrÃfica, destacam-se pela versatilidade, por serem leves para encalhe e movimentaÃÃo na faixa de praia, pela necessidade de pequena tripulaÃÃo e baixo custo de construÃÃo e manutenÃÃo. Os botes tÃm a menor abrangÃncia territorial, com o bastardo bem concentrados em Camocim e o triÃngulo com maior concentraÃÃo em IcapuÃ. A canoa tem predominÃncia exclusiva no litoral oeste e a jangada, no litoral leste. Em termos relativos, as embarcaÃÃes participaram da captura nas seguintes proporÃÃes: canoas = 45,3 %; paquete = 22,3 %; botes = 22,4%, destacando-se os municÃpios de Camocim, Itarema, Icapuà e AcaraÃ. Estes tÃm produÃÃo mais seleta, capturando espÃcies de maior valor comercial, a saber guaiÃba, cavala, pargo, sirigado, carapitanga e dourado. As jangadas vÃm perdendo importÃncia relativa na captura do pescado, mas ainda com destaque para os municÃpios de Fortaleza, Aquiraz, Beberibe Cascavel e Aracati. / CHAPTER 1 â Profile of the artisanal carpenters of sail crafts in Cearà State In a worldwide scenario, during the XV Century, the naval building of sail craft underwent an evolutionary development that enabled the undertaking of long-length voyages across the oceans. By arriving at Brazil, an intensive interaction process between local sail boat construction and that of European-derived knowledge. The sail rafts, at first built without sail, were deployed over the whole Brazilian northeast, mainly in Cearà State, as artisanal crafts, evolving from simple dugouts to the actual wooden ones as well as canoes and rowboats. For this research work, the Cearà Stateâs coast was surveyed from September, 2010 to May, 2012, taking in situ stock of all types of constructed crafts, and pinpointing and interviewing artisanal builders of sailboats, who are than main target population of this survey. To this aim, 36 accomplished carpenters, locally recognized as such, were required to answer a number of questionnaires directed toward a full appraisal of the artisanal naval builders, its professional profile and handicraft, for which photographic records, pictures and sound recordings were obtained. The derived data were transferred to electronic spreadsheets and then analyzed by crosschecking the recorded interviews and the movie pictures. This survey led to the following results: occurrence of low reading ability by the artisanal carpenters so that 44 per cent were found to be illiterate; non-existence of any kind of professional registration by the competent public offices; mean age of 22.1 years; high mean working time and frequency of distribution among the sampled population; factors of influence and origin of learning techniques and absence of functional framing, since they to do not retire as naval builders. Significant results were got as to the artisanal carpentersâs profile in Cearà State, which were deemed quite relevant for the maintenance of the folklore of their techniques applied to the construction of sail crafts, and round up the historic and socioeconomic heritage of the Cearà Stateâs coastline . CHAPTER 2 â Construction of different types of sail craft along Cearà Stateâs coastline The sailboats are used in fisheries since the middle ages and were introduced in Brazil at the beginning of its discovery. The Cearà Stateâs fleet is made up of rafts, canoes and boats whose study was meant for describing aspects of the building process and for ascertaining the existence of differentiation among fishing communities as to costs, construction time, basic materials, hand tools and positioning of masts according to boat size, sail types and setting of lining patterns. The methodology consisted of data surveys carried out locally, in the period from May, 2010 through December, 2012, by means of interviews with 36 artisanal carpenters in 25 fishing sites of 18 costal counties, by applying questionnaires and data gathering by recording, photography and movie pictures. The constructive technique consists of mounting a âprimary skeletonâ to which all other component parts are attached. The building principle of the triangle and bastard boats is the same as adopted by the whole of the labor force, which are identical as to their constructive pattern and hull framework, but differ as to the types of masts ands sails, namely the bastard one having a fixed mast and a storm jib, and the triangle one having a triangular storm jib. The construction costs vary in a decreasing order for boats, rafts and canoes, as determined by the craft length and kind of timber. Somewhat exceptionally there was identified in BitupitÃ, Barroquinha county, the existence of a square storm jib named âfour-fist sailâ, bent up as a bastard mast in the fish-weir canoes. CHAPTER 3 â The navigation practiced by master position markers on board sail boats in Cearà State The orientation carried out on board sailboats for navigation and fishing makes use of landmarks in order to compose the position lines named pathway and outpost that, while intercrossing, determine the sought after site. This activity has been taking place since the very early existence of the sail raft and it endures itself from generation to generation. This study was undertaken by master markers in some fishing localities, namely Baleia, Fortaleza and Redonda where canoes, sail rafts and boats are respectively predominant. The practice of this kind of navigation is similar for the various types of boats and diverges from one another very little among the studied landing points. The exercise of orientation requires that the master marker has got good eyesight and memory in order to find out the pathway and the outpost, besides undergoing setbacks from the absence of sunlight. That activity is started when the fisherman is still young, and his long-lived expertise is acquired independently of the educational degree as it is derived from both the fishing chores and the accumulated experience. The observation of stars and planets reveals the way back to the home port whose identifying star receives many nominations along Cearà Stateâs coastline. The lack of visibility brought about by rain, clouding, and other factors meddle with the identification of conspicuous landmarks. This age- old technique has been gradually replaced by the use of GPS devices for pinpointing the most productive fishing grounds, with a high degree of acceptance by the young generation. The low purchase price and the proved efficiency of that equipment has accounted for the diffusion of their advantages among the fishing communities of Cearà State. CHAPTER 4 â Sail crafts in Cearà Stateâs coastline: fleet and fishing production spatial distribution The Cearà Stateâs coastline spreads over 573 km distributed by 20 coastal counties, and 113 estuarine and marine fishing communities. This study is based on the following statistical data gathered through the ESTATPESCA Program: fleet composition by types of boat and county; fish production by type of boat and county; catch composition of the main fish species by type of boat. A detailed description of the sailboats in Cearà was presented in order to provide information on a number of variants of their main types, namely hollow raft, styrofoam-fulled rafts, canoe from Paracuru, canoe from Moitas-Baleia; canoe from Camocim; canoe from AcaraÃ-PreÃ-BitupitÃ; canoe from Bitupità fish-weirs, canoe-raft from Fleixeiras-Guagiru, triangle boat and bastard boat. The results show the small raft holds a numeric majority and a wider geographic distribution, standing out by being lighter to anchor on the beach sand, requiring fewer crew, and entailing lower construction and maintenance costs. The boats show a narrower territorial range, with the bastard ones being concentrated in Camocim county and the triangle ones more frequent in Icapuà county. The canoe and the large-sized raft hold an outstanding predominance on the western and the eastern sides of Cearà Stateâs coastline, respectively. In relative terms, the main types of fishing craft took part in the caches according to the following proportions: canoes = 45.3 per cent; small raft = 22.3 per cent; boats = 22.4 per cent. Among their home counties stand out Camocim, Itarema, Icapuà and AcaraÃ, the ones that boast a more exclusive fish production made out of such species as yellowtail snapper, king mackerel, Caribbean red snapper, black grouper, dog snapper and dolphin. The large-sized rafts have shown of late a tendency for playing a lesser part in fish catching, but they are still relevant in such Cearà Stateâs counties as Fortaleza, Aquiraz, Beberibe Cascavel and Aracati.