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La présente recherche s’intéresse au parcours migratoire entre le Mexique et le Canada de demandeurs d’asile mexicains déboutés. Privés des droits et des libertés fondamentales conférés par la citoyenneté, les Mexicains vivent dans un espace-temps constrictif et détiennent un accès limité à la mobilité. Victimes des déroutes et de la défaillance du système socioéconomique et politique du Mexique, l’asile devient bien souvent l’unique option à leur survie. Une fois au Canada, les demandeurs d’asile mexicains sont percutés dû à la prédominance de la criminalisation de l’asile et au discours stigmatisant de la figure du demandeur d’asile qui encouragent un flux considérable de migrations de retour forcé. Dépossédés du droit de choisir là où ils veulent vivre, les demandeurs d’asile mexicains font face à une double exclusion de l’espace. En ce sens, cette recherche explore le parcours migratoire des demandeurs d’asile mexicains à travers le vécu et l’imaginaire migratoire qui l’entourent. Elle tente de saisir les raisons qui motivent la migration et les éléments à l’origine de la modulation et de la transformation de la quête migratoire initiale. Ainsi, elle cherche à percevoir en quoi le processus d’octroi d’asile canadien affecte l’intégration et le sentiment d’appartenance à la société d’accueil. Elle évoque également les difficultés du processus de réintégration à la société d’origine. Finalement, cette étude cherche à s’éloigner du cadre administratif et s’attarde donc particulièrement aux conséquences humaines et vécues de ces phénomènes par l’exploration des perceptions et des interprétations spécifiques à chacun. Les conclusions de cette recherche établissent que les demandeurs d’asile mexicains déboutés par le Canada font face à un double rejet de l’espace. Ayant a priori opté pour l’asile en raison d’une incapacité à accéder à la sécurité et à garantir leur intégrité, l’exil les confronte à un système d’octroi d’asile restrictif et punitif qui freine leur intégration et mène majoritairement à un refus de leur demande. Au retour, la réintégration est bien souvent brimée par la continuation de l’exclusion et la persistance de la discrimination des migrants de retour. La quête migratoire originale se réinitialise, soit la recherche de droits, de libertés et de dignité. / This research focuses on the migratory path between Mexico and Canada of disallowed Mexican refugee claimants. Deprived of fundamental rights and freedoms of citizenship, Mexicans live in a constrictive space-time and hold a limited access to mobility. Victims of the failures in the socioeconomic and political systems of Mexico, asylum is often the only option for survival. Once in Canada, Mexican refugee claimants are often confronted with the predominance of asylum criminalization and stigmatization discourse creating a context of massive forced return migrations. Dispossessed of the right to choose where they want to live, Mexican asylum-seekers are facing a double exclusion of space. In this regard, this study explores Mexican refugee claimants’ migratory path through the lived experience and migratory imaginary surrounding it. It also attempts to understand the reasons behind migration as well as the elements responsible of the initial migratory quest’s modulation and transformation. Thus, it seeks to identify to what extent the Canadian asylum granting process affects the integration and sense of belonging to the host country. This research also raises the difficulties of the reintegration process within the society of origin. Finally, this study seeks to move away from the administrative framework and therefore focuses mainly on lived experience and human consequences of these phenomena, by exploring each person’ specific perceptions and interpretations. In conclusion, this research establishes that Mexican refugee claimants disallowed by Canada are facing a double rejection of space. Having a priori opted for asylum because of an inability to obtain safety and ensure their integrity, exile then opposes them to a restrictive and punitive grating system that hinders their integration and often leads to their request being refused. When returning, reintegration is often impeded by the continuation of exclusion and persistent discrimination of returnees. The original migratory quest resets itself, it being the search for rights, freedoms and dignity.

Cette thèse vise à comprendre et à caractériser l’expérience et le parcours migratoire et socioprofessionnel, ainsi que la dynamique des liens familiaux transnationaux, de couples brésiliens ayant migré à Montréal entre 2004 et 2013 et dont un des membres travaillait au Brésil comme professionnel en ingénierie ou dans le domaine des technologies de l’information et des communications (TIC). Trois raisons ont présidé au choix de ce sujet de recherche : (1) l’importance de la migration des travailleurs hautement qualifiés (THQ) dans le flux des migrations internationales, laquelle est insuffisamment étudiée ; (2) la formation d’une nouvelle vague migratoire de Brésiliens qualifiés arrivés à Montréal à partir du milieu des années 2000 et (3) une volonté de porter un nouveau regard sur la migration des THQ, afin de comprendre leur expérience et cheminement à partir de leur point de vue et de celui de leur famille. La décision de comparer les parcours migratoires des ingénieurs et des professionnels des TIC tient au fait que les ingénieurs font face à davantage d’obstacles socioprofessionnels (liés aux exigences de l’ordre professionnel des ingénieurs) et à une plus difficile reconnaissance des titres de compétence et de l’expérience acquise à l’étranger que les professionnels des technlogies de l’information et des communications (TIC), dont l’expertise est davantage reconnue internationalement et localement. Cette recherche vise à répondre au comment plutôt qu’au pourquoi. Comment devient-on émigrant dans la société de départ ? Comment, comme immigrant, s’adapte-t-on à la société de destination ? Comment s’y insère-t-on socioprofessionnellement ? Comment est maintenu le sentiment familial en dépit de la « tyrannie de la distance » ? Quel est, dans chaque cas, le rôle de l’agentivité des migrants, celui des contraintes et des opportunités, des ressources mobilisées dans la formation et la dynamique des parcours migratoires, professionnels et familiaux. J’ai choisi l’approche des parcours de vie car elle s’est avérée utile au double plan analytique et méthodologique. Sur le plan analytique, elle offre certains concepts, comme ceux de transition et de parcours, qui amènent à analyser la migration comme processus affectant des sphères de la vie des migrants. Sur le plan méthodologique, elle en fournit la méthode des récits de vie comme moyen de saisir, de façon diachronique, l’expérience des participants car les récits de vie aident à reconstruire « par en bas » le jeu des actions, des contraintes et opportunités dans la vie des migrants lors de certains contextes clés de leur existence. Cette approche biographique m’a permis d’identifier quatre transitions de vie significatives dans le parcours migratoire soit l’émigration du pays de départ, l’immigration dans le pays d’arrivée, l’incorporation socioprofessionnelle et la reconfiguration familiale, ce qui entraîne des changements de positions, de statuts ou de rôles dans divers espaces sociaux, professionnels et familiaux. Chacune de ces transitions constitue autant d’épreuves qui obligent à des engagements dans de nouveaux rôles et à des changements de positions sociales dont l’issue dépend autant des capacités stratégiques des migrants, de leur encastrement dans des liens sociaux et de l’ensemble des ressources et capitaux possédés qu’ils réussissent à reconvertir pour faire face aux épreuves rencontrées. J’ai été amenée, dans ce cadre, à identifier une pluralité de profils migratoires et d’incorporation professionnelle et une diversité de modes de gestion de la « tyrannie de la distance », pour continuer à faire famille. La thèse se divise en trois grandes parties, correspondant à chacune des thématiques de cette recherche, soit (1) la migration dans sa dimension émigration (chapitre 2) et immigration (chapitre 3), (2) l’incorporation socioprofessionnelle (chapitres 4 et 5) et (3) la famille transnationale (chapitre 6). Dans la conclusion générale, je rappelle les principaux résultats par rapport aux questionnements initiaux et identifie quelques limites de la recherche. / This thesis aims to understand the migratory experience of Brazilian engineers and information and communications technology (ICT) professionals who migrated to Montreal between 2004 and 2013. It focuses on the dynamics of their socio-professional incorporation and transnational family changes. There were three reasons for choosing this research topic: (1) the importance of highly skilled workers’ (HSW) migration in the flow of international migration, which is insufficiently studied; (2) the arrival of a new migratory wave of skilled Brazilians in Montreal in the mid-2000s; and (3) a willingness to take a different look at HSW migration, in order to understand migrants’ experience and journey from their point of view and the one of their family members. I decided to compare engineers’ and ICT professionals’ migration paths because engineers face supplementary socio-professional barriers (related to the requirements of the engineers’ regulatory body (Ordre des ingénieurs du Québec) and the more difficult recognition of credentials and experience gained abroad faced by these migrants as compared to ICT professionals, whose expertise is more easily recognized internationally and locally. This research aims to answer to questions concerning “how,” rather than “why:” How does one become an emigrant before leaving the sending society? How, having migrated, does one adapt to the receiving society? How does one insert oneself professionally? How is the familyhood maintained despite the “tyranny of distance”? What is the role of the migrant’s agency, which are the constraints and the opportunities, and the resources mobilized in the migratory dynamics and changes concerning both migratory, professional and family changes? I chose the life course approach because it proved to be analytically and methodologically useful. It offers certain concepts, such as transition and pathways, which lead to the analysis of migration as a process affecting different spheres of migrants’ lives. Methodologically, the life history approach allows us to grasp the experience of the participants in a diachronic manner. Life stories help to reconstruct "from below" the dynamics of actions, constraints and opportunities in the lives of migrants in certain key contexts of their existence. This biographical approach allowed me to identify four significant life transitions in the migration pathways: emigration from the country of origin, immigration to the country of arrival, socio-occupational incorporation and family reconfiguration, resulting in changes of position, status or role in social, professional and family spaces. Each of these transitions involves hardships that lead to commitments into new roles and changes in social positions. Their outcome depends as much on migrants' strategic abilities as on their integration into social ties and on assets that they manage to convert to face the hardships encountered. In this context, I was led to identify a plurality of migratory profiles and professional incorporation paths and a variety of modes of management of the tyranny of distance, to continue to make family. The thesis is divided into three main parts, corresponding to each of the themes of this research, namely (1) emigration (chapter 2) and immigration (chapter 3), (2) socio-occupational incorporation (chapters 4 and 5) and (3) the transnational family (chapter 6). In the general conclusion, I recall the main results in relation to the initial research questions and identify some of the limits of the research.

Migratory insects are vital components of global ecosystems and provide important ecosystem services, yet the migration phenomenon is understudied in insects compared to vertebrates. In this thesis, I aim to deepen our understanding of insect migration, using the monarch butterfly Danaus plexippus (L.) and the painted lady butterfly Vanessa cardui (L.) as model systems. Studying insect migration is notoriously difficult given the small size, high abundance, and short lifespans of insects. Isotope geolocation has shown promise for overcoming these obstacles. Here, I develop and apply metals and metal isotopes, specifically strontium isotope ratios (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr), to increase the spatial precision of isotope geolocation and demonstrate how isotopic geolocation tools can advance our understanding of insect migration at the population level. In the first chapter, I test the validity of using ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr, lead isotopes, and a suite of 23 metals and metalloids to estimate the natal origins of migratory insects, by investigating the pathways of metal incorporation into butterfly wing tissues. Using an 8-week diet-switching experiment, I show that the concentrations of many metals in insect wings can be altered through the adult diet or dust deposition, making them poor candidates for geolocation but potentially interesting tools to study insect physiology, diet, or toxicology. For example, lead was found to accumulate on butterfly wings from external sources, and lead isotopes could potentially be used to quantify the exposure of migratory insects to metal pollution. Some metals, including Ba, Cs, Mg, Na, Rb, Sr, Ti, Tl, and U, are good candidates for developing geolocation tools. I focused on ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and demonstrated that, despite some caveats, this tool is valid for isotope geolocation. In the second chapter, I outline the steps required to use ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr for the geolocation of insects, including the calibration of a spatial model of isotopic variation (i.e., an isoscape) using random forest regression. I then combine hydrogen isotope values (δ²H) and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr into a dual assignment framework to estimate the natal origins of a single generation of monarch butterflies in eastern North America. I demonstrate that combining these two isotopes provides a more spatially constrained estimate of natal origin than using either isotope alone. In the third chapter, I apply this framework to characterize the migratory patterns and migratory connectivity of an insect species across a geographical barrier, the Sahara. Painted ladies journeying northwards across the Sahara appear to do so in a gradual progression, although spatiotemporal sampling limitations prevented a complete characterization of this movement. In contrast, painted ladies migrating southwards appear to journey in a broad front, parallel migration pattern with little longitudinal movement. Evidence for a leapfrog migration pattern was found in the western region, wherein butterflies of northernmost origin journey farther south than butterflies bred in more southerly regions. This leapfrog migration pattern suggests distinct migratory behaviours within painted lady butterflies wherein some individuals migrate longer distances than others. In the fourth chapter, I apply isotope geolocation to characterize the migration distances of multiple individuals and assess the potential genetic differentiation of butterflies migrating distinct distances. I use δ²H and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr-based geographic assignment to confirm that some painted ladies migrate up to 4,000 km from Europe to sub-Saharan Africa, while others migrate shorter distances from Europe to the circum-Mediterranean region. Despite these differences in migration distance, genome-wide analysis revealed a lack of adaptive variation between short- and long-distance migrants. Instead, variation in migration distance in painted lady butterflies is likely the result of a plastic response to environmental conditions. Overall, the methodological developments presented in this thesis are a step forward in studying insect migration. The development and application of metals and metal isotopes for insect geolocation opens new avenues to study the migration phenomenon at different scales with widespread relevance for conservation and pest management.

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Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-10T10:46:38Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 MARIA DISSELMA TORRES DE ARRUDA.pdf: 1170701 bytes, checksum: 148663a4d364027e3f78e70b06498e0b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-12-22 / The main objective of this dissertation is to evaluate conceptual and empirically the aspects of international traffic of women for sexual exploration and its historical evolution the process and conditions in Brazil and Goiás. The traffic of women is part of a context in which the criminal activity generally is practised by criminal groups organized with the purpose to dislocate women from a country to another to submit them to sexual exploration. This criminal action is a matter of extreme importance for the international community and impresses with its complexity and large sums involved. The concept of traffic of women is found in two sources, the Protocol of Palermo and article 231 of the Brazilian Criminal Code. The dissertation, divided into three chapters approaches initially the first theories to explain the migratory movements and the factors that motivate the spatial displacement of people. Second, we highlight the phenomenon of migration in its historical evolution, the human rights as fundamental human rights, and sexual exploitation of women by criminal organizations. In a third stage performs an analysis of the socioeconomic context of the Brazilian reality that determine the potential victims of trafficking in Brazil, Goiás and in the Brazil - Europe and presents the conditions sexual exploration to which these women are subjected, the profile of victims and offenders, the main trafficking routes and forms of recruitment. Finally, we present an analysis of guidelines set by the National Policy to Combat Human Trafficking. Thus, the focus of this work is to identify ways in which the crime of trafficking in persons is incorporated into the international scene today and, in particular in Brazil and in Goiás. / O objetivo central desta dissertação é avaliar, conceitual e empiricamente aspectos do tráfico internacional de mulheres para fins de exploração sexual em evolução histórica e as condições e o processo no Brasil e em Goiás. O tráfico de mulheres é parte de um contexto no qual a atividade criminosa é geralmente praticada por grupos criminosos organizados com a finalidade de deslocar mulheres de um país para outro a fim de submetê-las à exploração sexual. Essa ação criminal é assunto de extrema relevância para a comunidade internacional e impressiona pela sua complexidade e elevadas somas envolvidas. O conceito de tráfico de mulheres é encontrado em duas fontes, no Protocolo de Palermo e no artigo 231 do Código Penal Brasileiro. A dissertação, organizada em três capítulos, aborda inicialmente as teorias que explicam os movimentos migratórios e os fatores que motivam o deslocamento espacial de pessoas. Em segundo lugar, destacam-se o fenômeno migratório em sua evolução histórica, os direitos humanos enquanto direito fundamental da pessoa humana e a exploração sexual de mulheres por organizações criminosas. Em um terceiro momento, realiza-se uma análise do contexto socioeconômico da realidade brasileira que determina as potenciais vítimas do tráfico no Brasil e em Goiás no eixo Brasil Europa e apresenta-se as condições de exploração sexual a que são submetidas essas mulheres, o perfil das vítimas e dos aliciadores, as principais rotas e formas de recrutamento. Por fim, apresenta-se uma análise das diretrizes definidas pela Política Nacional de Enfrentamento ao tráfico de pessoas. Assim, o ponto central deste trabalho é identificar de que maneira o crime do tráfico de pessoas se encontra incorporado ao cenário internacional contemporâneo e, de forma particular, no Brasil e em Goiás.

Apesar de ainda não terem sido relatados Coronavírus aviários com potencial zoonótico, espécies de aves silvestres e domésticas podem portar CoVs de grande importância econômica como o vírus da Bronquite Infecciosa (IBV). Além disso, nos últimos anos, diversos novos CoVs geneticamente distintos do IBV vêm sendo identificados em diferentes famílias de aves e mamíferos silvestres e domésticos. O Brasil contem 18% do total da diversidade de espécies de aves no mundo, no entanto, estudos sobre a presença de Coronavírus em aves silvestres ainda são bastante escassos. O presente estudo tem por objetivo realizar análise retrospectiva da presença de Coronavírus em amostras de aves silvestres e domésticas de diferentes regiões brasileiras coletadas entre os anos de 2004 e 2013 através de RT-PCR; realizar a caracterização molecular e a análise filogenética afim de correlacionar sua epidemiologia às rotas de migrações de aves, à proximidade das regiões urbanas e de granjas avícolas, verificando a possibilidade de transmissão. Do total de 746 amostras testadas, 25 apresentaram resultados positivos para os Coronavírus com primers para o gene da RpRd e foram sequenciadas. Obtivemos sucesso no sequenciamento de 7 dessas amostras, sendo 4 positivas para Gammacoronavírus e 3 positivas para Deltacoronavírus. Na tentativa de sequenciamento do gene da proteína S uma galinha (Gallus gallus), da Ilha de Marajó-PA, mostrou sequência que foi identificada como uma cepa de IBV. Este trabalho é inédito no Brasil, pois demonstra a presença de Gamma e Deltacoronavírus aviários circulando em diversas regiões, próximo a áreas urbanas e indústrias avícolas, mostrando evidências de que aves silvestres podem carrear estes Coronavírus entre diferentes sítios migratórios no Brasil. / Regardless it has never been reported any avian Coronavirus with zoonotic potential, species of both wild and domestic birds can carry CoVs of great economic importance as the Infectious Bronchitis Virus (IBV). Furthermore, recently, many new CoVs, genetically distinct from IBV have been identified in different families of wild and domestic birds and mammals. Even though Brazil contains 18% of the bird species diversity in the world studies about the presence of Coronaviruses in wild birds are still quite scarce. This study aims to perform retrospective analysis of the presence of coronavirus in wild birds and domestic samples of different Brazilian regions collected between the years 2004 and 2013 by RT PCR and to perform molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis in order to correlate its epidemiology to routes of bird migrations , the proximity of urban and poultry industry regions , verifying the possibility of transmission. Of the amount of 746 samples tested, 25 were positive for Coronavirus in PCR and nested PCR tests with primers for RpRd gene and were sequenced. We have succeeded in sequencing 7 of these samples which 4 were positive for Gammacoronavirus and 3 for Deltacoronavirus. In attempt of sequencing the S protein gene, we have succeeded in a chicken sample (Gallus gallus) from Ilha de Marajó-PA. This sample was identified as a strain of IBV. This work is unprecedented in Brazil, as it demonstrates the presence of Gamma and Deltacoronavirus in birds circulating in different regions, close to urban areas and poultry industries, showing evidence that wild birds may carry these Coronavirus between different migratory sites in Brazil.

A família Accipitridae representa uma das maiores radiações de aves atuais, ocupando habitats diversos em grande parte do planeta. Entre as divisões propostas para a família no passado, o grupo dos gaviões buteoninos figura entre um dos poucos que se aproximam em composição a uma linhagem monofilética, de acordo com análises filogenéticas recentes. Além de ocorrer tanto no Novo Mundo como no Velho Mundo, a maior parte das espécies de gaviões buteoninos está concentrada na América do Sul e na América Central, o que os torna um modelo atrativo para a análise de padrões e processos de diversificação em escalas continental e local. Outro aspecto interessante do grupo é o grande número de espécies migratórias, padrão ainda pouco explorado sob uma perspectiva filogenética. Os principais objetivos deste trabalho foram inferir as relações filogenéticas entre as espécies de gaviões buteoninos, analisar a evolução do comportamento migratório no grupo, e inferir padrões e processos de diversificação, com ênfase na região Neotropical. Foram utilizados mais de 7.000 pares de base de DNA mitocondrial e nuclear de 51 espécies de gaviões buteoninos, compreendendo o maior estudo filogenético do grupo até o momento. Do total de seqüências utilizadas, cerca de um terço foi representado por seqüências de DNA do 12S, tRNAVal e 16S, que contém uma proporção de sítios de evolução dependente resultante da existência de uma estrutura secundária. Como forma de avaliar o impacto destes sítios nas estimativas, foram também realizadas análises alternativas que incorporaram informação de estrutura secundária. Devido à indisponibilidade de um modelo de estrutura secundária de 16S para aves, este foi aqui elaborado com base em uma análise comparativa de representantes de todas as ordens de aves atuais. Os resultados sugerem que os gêneros Buteo, Leucopternis e Buteogallus como atualmente reconhecidos não são monofiléticos, o que ressalta a falta de concordância entre a classificação atual e a histórica evolutiva do grupo. Cinco linhagens principais foram encontradas, sendo a base da árvore composta por espécies predominantemente neotropicais, e a porção mais derivada principalmente por espécies neárticas e do Velho Mundo. Este resultado, associado às estimativas de tempo de divergência, sugere um longo período de diversificação na região Neotropical (com início entre o Oligoceno Superior ou o Mioceno, e se estendendo até o Pleistoceno), com colonização e diversificação recentes na região Neártica e no Velho Mundo (com início no Mioceno Superior ou no Plioceno, se estendendo até o Pleistoceno). O comportamento migratório evoluiu diversas vezes, e pode ter contribuído para a diversificação de algumas espécies, ao possibilitar a colonização de habitats antes não ocupados e promover especiação em ilhas. Na região Neotropical, disjunções de espécies de florestas de terras baixas que ocupam áreas a leste e oeste dos Andes ocorreram quatro vezes, possivelmente em dois eventos vicariantes. As disjunções mais antigas podem ter sido causadas pelo soerguimento da cordilheira, enquanto não foi possível definir claramente os processos envolvidos nas especiações mais recentes. Foram encontradas duas linhagens distribuídas em habitats alagados e ripários. Os resultados sugerem não somente um longo processo de diversificação, de forma independente das espécies de florestas não alagadas, mas também conexões históricas entre florestas de várzea da Amazônia e habitats costeiros. Espécies florestais e de áreas abertas não são reciprocamente monofiléticas. De forma similar, em alguns casos, espécies pertencentes a um mesmo bioma não são proximamente relacionadas, o que sugere uma história complexa de diversificação na região. A utilização de dados de sítios emparelhados de seqüências de RNA não trouxe mudanças significativas nas topologias e inferências de tempo de divergência, possivelmente devido à baixa variação das hastes neste grau de divergência. / The family Accipitridae represents one of the largest radiations of modern birds, with species being found in a plethora of habitats around the world. Among the divisions proposed for the family in the past, the group of the buteonine hawks is one of the few that approximate monophyletic lineages, according to recent phylogenetic analyses. Besides occurring both in the New World and Old World, most buteonine hawk species are mainly found in Central and South America, what provides an opportunity to evaluate patterns and processes of diversification in both continental and local scales. The main goals of this work were to infer phylogenetic relationships among species of buteonine hawks, analyze the evolution of migratory behaviour, and evaluate patterns and processes of diversification, especially in the Neotropical region. We obtained more than 7.000 base pairs of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences from 51 species of buteonine hawks, what comprises the largest phylogenetic analysis of the group so far. Approximately one third of the total dataset was obtained from DNA sequences of 12S, tRNAVal and 16S, which are known to have paired sites that evolve in concert due to the presence of a secondary structure. Alternative analyses incorporating such information have been performed, as a way to evaluate the effects of secondary structure in the phylogenetic analyses. Since a model of secondary structure of 16S of birds was not available so far, we build one based on comparative analysis of representatives of all modern avian orders. The results suggest that the genera Buteo, Leucopternis and Buteogallus as currently accepted are not monophyletic, what stress a lack of concordance between current classification and the evolutionary history of this group. Five main lineages were found, and the most basal part of the topology is composed by mainly neotropical species, while the majority of neartic and Old World species were positioned in the most derived part of the tree. Together with divergence time estimates, those results suggest a long period of diversification in the Neotropics (possibly beginning in the Upper Miocene or Oligocene, and extending to the Pleistocene), with a latter colonization and diversification of the Neartics and Old World (possibly beginning between the Upper Oligocene or Pliocene, and extending to the Pleistocene). Migratory behaviour evolved several times, and may have contributed to diversification by means of exploitation of previously unavailable habitats as well as promotion of speciation in islands. Lowland species disjunctions between each side of the Andes occurred four times, possible due to two vicariant events. The earliest disjunctions may have been caused by Andean orogeny, but no process could be clearly attributed to the two most recent speciations. Two lineages restricted to flooded habitats were found. The results suggest not only a long process of diversification in such habitats, independently of species of non-flooded habitats, but also a historical relationship between várzea forests in Amazonia and costal habitats. Similarly, species that occupy the same biome are not the closest relatives in several cases, what suggests a complex history of diversification in the Neotropical region. Inclusion of secondary structure information did not affect significantly phylogenetic and divergence time estimates, likely due to the low variation in stems in such level of divergence.

A influenza aviária é uma enfermidade viral causada por vírus influenza A que acomete várias espécies de aves. No Brasil, a influenza aviária é considerada uma doença exótica, uma vez que os subtipos H5 e H7 nunca foram detectados. O Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento realiza vigilância permanente para esta enfermidade nos plantéis comerciais de produção avícola e também em aves de subsistência criadas no entorno de sítios de aves migratórias com o intuito de detectar precocemente a introdução dos subtipos H5 e H7 no país. No entanto, se desconhece a situação sanitária das aves de subsistência no que se refere à infecção por outros subtipos do vírus da influenza aviária. Considerando a importância deste tipo de criação como fonte de alimentos e de rendimentos em comunidades de baixa renda e o risco que provavelmente representa para a introdução da influenza aviária no Brasil, o objetivo deste trabalho foi monitorar as criações de aves de subsistência criadas no entorno de sítios de aves migratórias no período de 2011 a 2015, a fim de verificar a circulação de todos os subtipos do vírus da influenza aviária (AIV). Foram colhidas amostras de soro e suabes de traqueia e cloaca de 2816 aves criadas em onze diferentes sítios de aves migratórias localizados em sete estados brasileiros, totalizando 391 explorações de fundo de quintal amostradas. As amostras de soro (n = 2716) foram submetidas a triagem para pesquisa de anticorpos para a proteína NP do influenza A utilizando-se um kit comercial de ELISA competitivo, com posterior subtipificação das amostras positivas pela técnica de inibição da hemaglutinação para os dezesseis subtipos do vírus influenza A. Os suabes de cloaca e traqueia foram submetidos à prova de PCR em tempo real para detecção do RNA do vírus influenza A. Não foram detectados anticorpos para os subtipos H5 e H7 do AIV, mas anticorpos para os subtipos H1, H3, H4, H6, H8, H9, H10, H12, H13 e H16 foram identificados em aves oriundas de nove dos onze sítios. O RNA do AIV foi detectado em apenas três amostras pertencentes a uma mesma propriedade e nenhum vírus hemaglutinante foi isolado a partir deste material. Os resultados obtidos permitem concluir que os vírus de influenza aviária de baixa patogenicidade circulam em aves de subsistência criadas no entorno de sítios de aves migratórias no Brasil e alertam para a importância da ampliação da vigilância ativa nesta população / Avian influenza is a viral disease caused by an influenza A virus and affects various avian species. Avian influenza is considered an exotic disease in Brazil, since H5 and H7 notifiable subtypes have never been detected. The Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food Supply carries out permanent surveillance for avian influenza in commercial poultry production flocks and also in backyard poultry raised in the vicinity of concentration areas of migratory birds with the purpose of detecting the early introduction of H5 and H7 subtypes in the country. However, the health status of backyard poultry in relation to infection by other avian influenza subtypes is unknown. Considering the importance of this kind of family production system as a source of food and revenue for low-income communities and the risk it probably represents for the introduction of avian influenza in Brazil, the aim of this work was monitoring backyard poultry raised in the vicinity of concentration areas of migratory birds from 2011 to 2015 to verify the circulation of all avian influenza virus (AIV) subtypes. Serum samples and cloacal and tracheal swabs were sampled from 2816 birds raised in eleven migratory birds concentration areas located in seven Brazilian states, totaling 391 backyard poultry flocks harvested. Serum samples (n = 2716) were screened using a commercial competitive ELISA kit to detect specific antibodies for the NP protein of the influenza A virus and afterwards the positive samples were subtyped through inhibition hemagglutination assay for the sixteen subtypes of influenza A viruses. Cloacal and tracheal swabs were tested by real-time PCR for detection of the influenza A virus RNA. No antibodies for H5 and H7 subtypes were detected, but antibodies for subtypes H1, H3, H4, H6, H8, H9, H10, H12, H13 e H16 have been identified in birds from nine out of eleven areas. The influenza A virus RNA was detected only in three samples from one flock and no hemagglutinating viruses were isolated from these specimens. Results obtained in this work suggest that low pathogenic avian influenza viruses are circulating in backyard poultry flocks raised in concentration areas of migratory birds in Brazil and alert to the importance of the expansion of active surveillance in this population

La restructuration productive de l’industrie pauliste survenue à la fin des années 1980 a réservé une place importante à la main d’œuvre migrante dans le secteur de la confection. Le circuit de sous-traitance transnational a favorisé l’arrivée des travailleurs mobiles venus des pays voisins. Suite à une intensification de ce flux migratoire au tournant des années 2000, les Boliviens se sont vite imposés comme la plus importante population migrante latino-américaine de la ville de São Paulo. Ils travaillent dans des ateliers de confection, de petites structures de production ayant l’avantage de faciliter la mobilité sociale et spatiale grâce à des carrières d’entrepreneurs migrants. Les conditions de production de l’espace géographique et social de cette migration sont mises en perspective par une identification des réseaux sociaux dont dépendent les trajectoires migratoires. Afin de saisir l’articulation entre réseaux et mobilités, nous partons du constat de l’existence de dispositifs réticulaires aux agencements variables qui opèrent comme des matrices des migrations individuelles et participent à la production d’un espace social transnational. Ces dispositifs réticulaires sont basés soit sur des liens jetables, soit sur des liens familiaux, soit sur des liens de communauté rurale. Ils donnent à voir des compétences circulatoires et relationnelles engageant une capacité d’action chez les individus concernés qui contraste avec la représentation du « travailleur esclave » qui structure une partie du rapport entre les pouvoirs publics et les migrants boliviens. / The productive restructuring of the paulist industry in the late 1980s has reserved an important place to the migrant labour in the garment sector. The transnational subcontracting circuit has favoured the arrival of mobile workers from neighbouring countries. In the wake of an intensification of this migratory flow at the turn of the 2000s, Bolivians has quickly established themselves as the largest Latin American migrant population in the city of São Paulo. They work in sweatshops, small production structures having the advantage of facilitating social and spatial mobility through careers as migrant entrepreneurs. The conditions of production of the geographical and social space of this migration are put into perspective by identifying the social networks on which the migratory trajectories depend. In order to understand the articulation between networks and mobilities, we start from the observation of the existence of reticular apparatus with variable arrangements that operate as individual migrations matrices and participate in the production of a transnational social space. These reticular apparatus are based either on disposable ties or on family ties or on rural community ties. They reveal circulatory and relational skills involving a capacity for action among the individuals concerned, which contrasts with the representation of "slave labourer" that structure part of the relationship between government and Bolivian migrants.