This thesis explores a relatively new and arguably innovative United States (US) international development initiative called the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA), which was launched by President Bush in 2004 as his flagship development programme for combating global poverty. Inciting transformational change, both in the delivery of aid and within the recipient countries themselves, lies at the heart of the MCA, which is housed in a new development entity named the Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC). In-depth semistructured interviews were utilised to facilitate the accumulation of rich and varied data, through which the rhetoric and discourses surrounding the MCA could be' challenged, contested and debated at a variety oflevels. This study critically engages with the MCA to reveal its core motivations and ideological underpinnings, through which we can better understand its origins and potential to deliver sustainable development in the South. In order to do this, specific attention is given to Nicaragua's involvement in the initiative; a country which has played host to a plethora of US foreign policy activities, actions and interventions over the years. An exhaustive exploration of Nicaragua's experience of the MCA is subsequently utilised as a platform for engaging with the core debates and issues surrounding the MCA and development discourse more broadly. In particular, the study's findings critically question the neoliberal model of development being promoted through the MCA and challenge the programme's ability to address the complexities of impoverishment. Part and parcel of this process involves examining the seemingly inseparable marriage between 'democracy' and market liberalisation in development, through which it is argued in this thesis that transnationalliberalism has been extended as the hegemonic ideology of this epoch and a polyarchic system of rule promoted across much of the South.

There remains limited research on the gap between the participation and persistence to graduation rates for American Indian students in higher education. It is pertinent to explore the experiences of these students who did not persist to graduation to be able to gain a better understanding of the factors involved in this gap. The primary purpose of this qualitative study was to gain a greater understanding of why twenty American Indian college students who were high-achieving and received the Gates Millennium scholarship (AIGMS) did not persist to graduation. To achieve this greater understanding from an Indigenous perspective, it was important to utilize existing theoretical frameworks developed by Native scholars that employed critical, culturally sensitive lenses for the analysis. Through the lenses of Tribal Critical Race Theory, Cultural Models of Education and the Family Education Model, the research questions were developed with a critical focus on the institutional influence of the participants' experiences. This study employed a phenomenological qualitative approach guided by an Indigenous research paradigm. The findings of this research inquiry were broken down into five main sections. The first section discussed the pre-collegiate experiences of AIGMS. This set of findings emerged throughout the interviews as participants shared their experiences in college, they often referred back to influential moments with their families and tribal communities leading up to college. The second section highlighted the conditions that impeded AIGMS' success in institutions of higher education. What emerged as the major factors of AIGMS' non persistence within higher education was GMSP's inflexible deferment policy and missing structures on campus to represent participants’ Native and Gates scholar identities, such as space for AIGMS to practice their cultural spirituality and direct support on campus for being a Gates scholar. The third section reveals the push-pull factors influential to AIGMS' experiences on campus and back home in their tribal communities. The main push factor from the institution was the lack of support they felt from key institutional agents, such as from a multicultural center director, financial aid officer or academic advisor. The fourth section describes the impact of the campus racial climate on AIGMS' experiences on their respective campuses. Some AIGMS assumed that being awarded this prestigious scholarship would be acknowledged either through their faculty or staff on campus. Instead they described examples of exclusion, lack of belonging, marginalization, isolation and invisibility on campus. The final section described the experiences of AIGMS who returned to higher education, including those who have found success in tribal colleges as well as those who have since completed their degrees without funding from GSMP. This finding is of particular importance because it demonstrates that the loss of financial aid affected the type of institution AIGMS' returned. Principally, AIGMS were thoughtful and rational about their decision to defer from higher education, taking into account the factors pulling them from outside the institution – such as family/medical/health issues. They were also impacted by their experiences within their institutions that pushed them out from within – such as experiences with invisibility and marginalization on campus. Faculty, institutional agents and their peers played into these experiences. The Gates Millennium Scholarship Program and institutions’ lack of cultural understanding of how to serve these AIGMS led to a disconnection with these students. These AIGMS’ experiences with push and pull factors places more responsibility on the institution and the scholarship program for their non-persistence.

INTRODUÇÃO: Promulgadas em 2000 as Metas de Desenvolvimento do Milênio destacam-se internacionalmente como importante política de cooperação para o desenvolvimento. Resultado do empenho da Organização das Nações Unidas caracteriza-se como uma tentativa de diminuir as disparidades sociais e econômicas no início do século XXI. Constituída por oito Metas, com prazo final para cumprimento em 2015. O objetivo 8.E da oitava Meta é definido como a cooperação com a indústria farmacêutica e visa, proporcionar o acesso a medicamentos essenciais com preços acessíveis nos países em desenvolvimento. OBJETIVOS: descreveu-se por meio das recomendações dos Relatórios da ONU o progresso do Objetivo 8.E e as políticas públicas de saúde no Brasil, Cuba e México. METODOLOGIA O estudo caracterizou-se por um estudo de caso descritivo e exploratório realizado por meio do estudo das recomendações governamentais estabelecidas nos relatórios da ONU relativos ao Objetivo 8.E, no período de 2000 a 2012, de documentos oficiais dos três países estudados e de revisão de literatura sobre o assunto. RESULTADOS: verificou-se que as propostas estabelecidas nos Relatórios da ONU para garantia do acesso a medicamentos apresentaram-se como políticas públicas nacionais executadas por meio dos sistemas de saúde dos três países estudados antes da promulgação das Metas do Milênio. CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS: em âmbito internacional As Metas do Milênio apresentam importância na cooperação para o desenvolvimento internacional observou-se, contudo, que os sistemas de saúde, existentes nos países estudados, apresentaram papel fundamental na política de acesso a medicamentos essenciais e, decorrentemente, no cumprimento das recomendações estabelecidas para os Estados-membros do Objetivo 8.E de forma independente do financiamento e estratégias de cooperação internacional / INTRODUCTION : Enacted in 2000, the Millennium Development Goals stand out internationally as an important development cooperation policy . Resulting of the commitment of the United Nations they are characterized as an attempt to reduce social and economic disparities in the XXI century . Composed of eight goals , with deadline for compliance in 2015 . The Target 8.E of the eighth Goal is defined as in cooperation with the pharmaceutical industry to provide access to affordable essential drugs in developing countries . OBJECTIVES : describe by means of the recommendations of the UN reports progress on the Target 8.E and public health policies in Brazil , Cuba and Mexico. METHODOLOGY The study was characterized by a descriptive case study and exploratory study conducted by the governmental recommendations set out in the UN reports relating to Target 8.E in the period from 2000 to 2012 , the official documents of the three countries studied and literature review on the subject . RESULTS : we found that the proposals set out in UN reports for ensuring access to medicines presented as national public policies were implemented by health systems of the three countries studied prior to the enactment of the Millennium Goals . CONCLUSION : internationally, the Millennium Goals have importance in development cooperation, however was noted that the health systems in the countries studied , displayed major role in access to essential medicines and so forth in compliance with the recommendations established for the Member States of the Objective 8.E independently of international financing and international cooperation strategies

INTRODUÇÃO: Promulgadas em 2000 as Metas de Desenvolvimento do Milênio destacam-se internacionalmente como importante política de cooperação para o desenvolvimento. Resultado do empenho da Organização das Nações Unidas caracteriza-se como uma tentativa de diminuir as disparidades sociais e econômicas no início do século XXI. Constituída por oito Metas, com prazo final para cumprimento em 2015. O objetivo 8.E da oitava Meta é definido como a cooperação com a indústria farmacêutica e visa, proporcionar o acesso a medicamentos essenciais com preços acessíveis nos países em desenvolvimento. OBJETIVOS: descreveu-se por meio das recomendações dos Relatórios da ONU o progresso do Objetivo 8.E e as políticas públicas de saúde no Brasil, Cuba e México. METODOLOGIA O estudo caracterizou-se por um estudo de caso descritivo e exploratório realizado por meio do estudo das recomendações governamentais estabelecidas nos relatórios da ONU relativos ao Objetivo 8.E, no período de 2000 a 2012, de documentos oficiais dos três países estudados e de revisão de literatura sobre o assunto. RESULTADOS: verificou-se que as propostas estabelecidas nos Relatórios da ONU para garantia do acesso a medicamentos apresentaram-se como políticas públicas nacionais executadas por meio dos sistemas de saúde dos três países estudados antes da promulgação das Metas do Milênio. CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS: em âmbito internacional As Metas do Milênio apresentam importância na cooperação para o desenvolvimento internacional observou-se, contudo, que os sistemas de saúde, existentes nos países estudados, apresentaram papel fundamental na política de acesso a medicamentos essenciais e, decorrentemente, no cumprimento das recomendações estabelecidas para os Estados-membros do Objetivo 8.E de forma independente do financiamento e estratégias de cooperação internacional / INTRODUCTION : Enacted in 2000, the Millennium Development Goals stand out internationally as an important development cooperation policy . Resulting of the commitment of the United Nations they are characterized as an attempt to reduce social and economic disparities in the XXI century . Composed of eight goals , with deadline for compliance in 2015 . The Target 8.E of the eighth Goal is defined as in cooperation with the pharmaceutical industry to provide access to affordable essential drugs in developing countries . OBJECTIVES : describe by means of the recommendations of the UN reports progress on the Target 8.E and public health policies in Brazil , Cuba and Mexico. METHODOLOGY The study was characterized by a descriptive case study and exploratory study conducted by the governmental recommendations set out in the UN reports relating to Target 8.E in the period from 2000 to 2012 , the official documents of the three countries studied and literature review on the subject . RESULTS : we found that the proposals set out in UN reports for ensuring access to medicines presented as national public policies were implemented by health systems of the three countries studied prior to the enactment of the Millennium Goals . CONCLUSION : internationally, the Millennium Goals have importance in development cooperation, however was noted that the health systems in the countries studied , displayed major role in access to essential medicines and so forth in compliance with the recommendations established for the Member States of the Objective 8.E independently of international financing and international cooperation strategies

The composition of the atmosphere has changed substantially over Earth's history, with important implications for past climate. A number of case studies will be presented which employ coupled climate model simulations to assess the strength of these chemical feedbacks on the climate. The eruption of Mount Samalas in 1257 led to the largest stratospheric volcanic injection of aerosol precursor gases in the Common Era, however climate model simulations of the last millennium typically overestimate the resulting climatic cooling when compared with tree-ring proxy records. A novel configuration of the Met Office UM-UKCA climate model is presented which couples an atmosphere-ocean general circulation model to a rigorous treatment of the relevant atmospheric chemistry and microphysical aerosol processes. This permits the climate response to a particular stratospheric injection of reactive volatile gases to be quantified and for the first time to date applied to a historical volcanic eruption. This model configuration compares favourably to observational data for simulations of the 1991Mount Pinatubo eruption. Results from an ensemble of model simulations are presented, with different assumptions about the sulfur dioxide and halogen loadings based on a recent geochemical reconstruction. These show a muted climate response, in reasonable agreement with tree ring records. Emissions of halogenated compounds lead to an increase in the sulfur dioxide lifetime, widespread ozone depletion and a prolonged climatic cooling. Strong increases in incident ultraviolet radiation at Earth's surface also occur. Oxygen levels may have varied fromas little as 10% to as high as 35% in the Phanerozoic (541Ma - Present). An increase in atmospheric oxygen increases atmospheric mass which leads to a reduction in incident shortwave radiation at Earth's surface due to Rayleigh scattering. However, this is offset by an increase in the pressure broadening of greenhouse gas absorption lines. Dynamical feedbacks also lead to increased meridional heat transport, warming polar regions and cooling tropical regions. An increase in oxygen content using the HadCM3-BL and HadGEM3-AO climate models leads to a global mean surface air temperature increase for a pre-industrial Holocene base case, in agreement with idealised 1D and 2D modeling studies. Case studies from past climates are investigated using HadCM3-BL which show that in the warmest climates, increasing oxygen may lead to a temperature decrease, as the equilibrium climate sensitivity is lower. For the Maastrichtian (72.1 - 66.0Ma), increasing oxygen content leads to a better agreement with proxy reconstructions of surface temperature at that time irrespective of the carbon dioxide content. There is considerable uncertainty in the timing of the rise in atmospheric oxygen content from values around 1% in the Neoproterozoic (1000 Ma - 541 Ma) to the 10- 35% values inferred in the Phanerozoic with respect to two global glaciation episodes (717-635Ma). Results of simulations with HadCM3-BL which investigate the impact of oxygen content on the Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth glaciations are presented. These demonstrate that a smaller reduction in carbon dioxide content is required to initiate a Snowball Earth at low oxygen content. Geological evidence suggests the presence of a basaltic large igneous province before the Sturtian Snowball Earth episode. This could have caused episodes of paced explosive volcanism, injecting sulfate aerosol precursors into the stratosphere. Results of simulations to investigate the impact of different volcanic aerosol emission scenarios are presented. 500 Tg SO2 is investigated with a range of aerosol sizes. For aerosol size distributions consistent with the aerosol evolution in the aftermath of the Mount Pinatubo eruption, the Earth enters a Snowball Earth in between 30 and 80 years. Using a larger size of aerosols, consistent with a larger eruption, does not lead to a Snowball Earth. These simulations show that changes to the chemical composition of the atmosphere, whether reactive gases or bulk chemical composition may have played an important role in the past climate of Earth.

Cheung Tang, Chung Kiu Maggie. / Thesis (M.Div.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2009. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 66-69). / In English with some Chinese; abstract also in Chinese. / Chapter CHAPTER ONE --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter i. --- Defining the problem --- p.1 / Chapter ii. --- The religious movements --- p.3 / Chapter iii. --- Same characteristics shared among these movements --- p.5 / Chapter iv. --- Discussion on organization --- p.7 / Chapter v. --- Discussion on eschatological view --- p.8 / Chapter CHAPATER TWO --- Millennialism and messianism in Chinese conception --- p.9 / Chapter I. --- Introduction --- p.9 / Chapter II. --- Human-centrism and pessimism in Chinese culture --- p.11 / Chapter III. --- Christian millennialism and messianism in Chinese tradition --- p.13 / Chapter IV. --- Buddhist millennium and messianism in Chinese tradition --- p.15 / Chapter V. --- Taoist millennium and messianism in Chinese tradition --- p.18 / Chapter VI. --- Eschatological concept in Chinese religious understanding --- p.20 / Chapter CHAPTER THREE --- Chinese Religious Movements ´ؤ nature and eschatology --- p.23 / Chapter Part I - --- Movement of the Celestial Master Sect (Tianshi Dao) --- p.23 / Chapter I. --- Introduction --- p.23 / Chapter II. --- The founding of Celestial Master Sect --- p.25 / Chapter III. --- Content of Celestial Master Sect --- p.26 / Chapter IV. --- Organization --- p.28 / Chapter V. --- Eschatological view --- p.28 / Chapter VI. --- Concluding remarks --- p.31 / Chapter Part II - --- Movement of the White Lotus Sect (Bailian Jiao) --- p.33 / Chapter I. --- Introduction --- p.33 / Chapter II. --- The history of White Lotus Sect --- p.34 / Chapter III. --- Content of White Lotus --- p.37 / Chapter IV. --- Eschatological view --- p.40 / Chapter V. --- Concluding remarks --- p.42 / Chapter Part III - --- Movement of the Taping Heavenly Kingdom --- p.43 / Chapter I. --- Introduction --- p.43 / Chapter II. --- The founding of Taiping Heavenly Kingdom --- p.44 / Chapter III. --- Installation and content of Taiping Heavenly Kingdom --- p.47 / Chapter IV. --- Eschatological view --- p.50 / Chapter V. --- Concluding remarks --- p.51 / Chapter CHAPTER FOUR --- A Christian eschatology in Chinese tradition ´ؤ problem and opportunity --- p.54 / Chapter I. --- Denial of the world in Chinese religious tradition --- p.54 / Chapter II. --- Denial of the world in Chinese Christianity --- p.60 / Chapter III. --- Conclusion --- p.63

The shea tree is indigenous to 21 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and provides nuts from which oil (referred to as butter) can be extracted. Shea butter production in the Northern Region of Ghana is of socioeconomic importance to female processors who practice shea production. This study quantified the environmental effects of shea processing from carbon dioxide emissions and the human energy expended through the traditional, improved, and centralized methods of shea processing. Par-boiling accounted for up to 88% of total carbon dioxide emissions throughout the entire shea butter production process. A difference of 2.5(CO2 (kg))/(Shea butter (kg)) emitted observed between the traditional and centralized processing methods. The moisture content of 16 firewood samples collected at the centralized processing center found wood moisture to range between 9-34%. The largest amounts of human energy expended during traditional and improved processes take place during the nut collection process followed by manual crushing (40% and 20% of total energy expended during the traditional method, respectively). Women in the study area were found to travel an average of 10 km to pay for a corn mill to process their shea kernels into a paste, producers also expressed interest in mechanized crushing machines during household surveys. User perceptions of the improved roasting equipment were found to be positive, as well as adoption of the new technology was observed by all shea producers surveyed in the village of Tigla. The entirety of individual producers surveyed without access to improved roasters expressed interest in obtaining and utilizing improved roasters to improve the traditional method currently practiced. The profit observed from shea kernel processing and sales was found to be higher than women practicing traditional shea butter processing and sales due to time, energy, and inputs required by completing the entire process. Butter producers at centralized processing centers have the opportunity to make up to 33% higher profits while utilizing less energy (54% reduction) by purchasing directly from kernel producers and implementing improved technologies in a centralized setting. The potential of shea production in northern Ghana has yet to be reached. Through adoption of improved technologies, women have the opportunity to save time and human energy, reduce material inputs such as firewood, and in turn are able produce an even greater amount of marketable shea products.

It has been reported that globally we have achieved Millennium Development Goal (MDG) Target 7C, to halve the proportion of the population without access to safe drinking water; however, there is a major flaw with this statement. While Target 7C calls for access to `safe' drinking water, what is actually being measured and reported is access to an `improved' water source. The World Health Organization (WHO) maintains that they must use this proxy measure because the methods for water quality testing are too expensive and logistically complicated, but by doing so, they may be over reporting safe water coverage. This was shown to be true in Tamatave, Madagascar, where thermotolerant coliforms were detected in water from a type of `improved' source, the Pitcher Pump system. This research looked at several parameters - Pitcher Pump system depth, sampling neighborhood, requirement of pump priming, frequency that the system was repaired, distance from on-site sanitation, and number of users - to see if they were influencing water quality. Of all the parameters tested, only priming was found to be significantly associated with the levels of thermotolerant coliforms detected (Fisher exact test p = 0.03). Using a Mann-Whitney U test, it was shown that the median thermotolerant coliform concentration was significantly higher in primed wells (41.3 cfu/100 ml) than unprimed wells (3.5) (p = 0.01 cfu/100 ml). A pilot study was conducted to look at only the effect of depth and to determine if a depth could be identified that could provide safe drinking water. The result of the pilot study showed that, while thermotolerant coliform concentration did decrease with increasing depth, even at the deepest well of 9.4 m, levels were still above 100 cfu/100 ml. Additional research was conducted to investigate the performance and cost of three test kits for both total coliform and Escherichia coli quantification for water quality analysis in developing countries. IDEXX Colilert Quanti-trays[reg] (Colilert), Micrology Laboratories Coliscan[reg] Membrane Filtration tests (Coliscan MF) and a modified method for 3-M PetrifilmTM Coliform/E. coli plates (modified 3-M) were compared with standard membrane filtration (standard MF) methods under a range of incubation temperature conditions (22.0, 35.0 and 44.5[deg]C). Each test method was also performed by inexperienced volunteers, with the results compared to those of an experienced technician. At non-standard temperatures, Coliscan MF proved to be the most accurate when compared to standard methods, with a significant difference with only total coliforms at 44.5[deg]C. Modified 3-M had the poorest correlation with standard MF over the range of temperatures tested, with significant differences noted for all the temperatures except for E. coli at 44.5[deg]C. Inexperienced university volunteers found Colilert easiest to use, but Coliscan MF produced E. coli results that were most similar to the experts. Coliscan MF was found to have the overall best performance and lowest cost in this study; however, it did produce high numbers of false positive results.

<p>The aim of this paper is to investigate the impact of free education for all on the primary schools in Babati, Tanzania. The study is based on the fieldwork carried out in Babati district Tanzania, where information was gathered through qualitative methods. The empirical findings are analysed using a World Bank model of how educational inputs affects welfare outcomes. The study examines the millennium development goal with respect to giving every child an education. The study shows that a bigger impact can be seen in an increased enrolment in schools. That was the result of removing the primary school fees. This has resulted in overcrowding in the primary schools, lack of enough teachers, classrooms and learning material. However, over time the performances have improved. In the short term, the removal of school fees increased enrolment but resulted in poor quality of the education. In the long term, these problems are decreasing and the educational sector can now provide education to children that could not afford it before.</p>

The aim of this paper is to investigate the impact of free education for all on the primary schools in Babati, Tanzania. The study is based on the fieldwork carried out in Babati district Tanzania, where information was gathered through qualitative methods. The empirical findings are analysed using a World Bank model of how educational inputs affects welfare outcomes. The study examines the millennium development goal with respect to giving every child an education. The study shows that a bigger impact can be seen in an increased enrolment in schools. That was the result of removing the primary school fees. This has resulted in overcrowding in the primary schools, lack of enough teachers, classrooms and learning material. However, over time the performances have improved. In the short term, the removal of school fees increased enrolment but resulted in poor quality of the education. In the long term, these problems are decreasing and the educational sector can now provide education to children that could not afford it before.