published_or_final_version / abstract / Social Work and Social Administration / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

This essay is about capital punishment and mutilation in Ancient Egypt’s pharaonic era. The earlier research has mostly focused on the New Kingdom and later periods, in large part because the textual sources are much clearer from then on. There are however some earlier texts that seem to mention death penalty or mutilation, but correct analysis of these is debatable. Some scholars argue that death penalty certainly was used before New Kingdom, while others claim that this is not the case. These things combined contribute to the lack of knowledge of how these penalties were used. The goal of the present study is to elaborate on how and why the penalties were applied and if they were used before the New Kingdom. This is done by means of analyzing and comparing textual sources from different time periods. The material consists of inscriptions from tombs, stelae and juridical documents such as documentation from tomb robberies and the so-called Harem Conspiracy. The most important findings are that there are indicators, but no tangible evidence, for mutilation or capital punishment being used before New Kingdom. The New Kingdom material is indeed clearer and it is apparent that death penalty, in the form of impaling, was used as punishment for tomb robbery, conspiracy and rebellion against the king and theft from temple. Mutilation of the ears and the nose was used against those who abused their power or their confidence.

Student Number : 9304796E - MA research report - School of Psychology - Faculty of Humanities / The central aim of this research was to ascertain the psychological meaning of, and motivation for body piercing in a sample of female body modifiers. It was decided to conduct research on the psychology of body piercing because although medical, anthropological and social research has been conducted into piercing practices and body modification, very little has focused on the underlying psychological meanings and motivations associated with body modification. Furthermore, the focus of this study was limited to women because it was felt that had both genders been included, possibly gender based differences would have caused the scope of the research project to become too wide. By focusing specifically on women, it was felt that a deeper understanding of the underlying psychological motivations for the piercing of the female body could be explored. For the purposes of this research, the operational definition of body piercing is defined as that which does not echo mainstream fashion trends or promote Eurocentric, socially sanctioned ideals of beauty. The participants needed to have pierced body parts (excluding their earlobes), and the piercings or the piercing process should hold specific significance and meaning for them. Participants who had pierced body parts only for aesthetic reasons were excluded from this study. Those who were included attributed more than just a decorative function and aesthetic value to their body piercings. In other words, they deviated from mainstream piercing practices in terms of the meanings they attach to their piercings. Some of the piercings and piercing practices and processes undertaken by the participants represent a departure from the ‘norm’, and have been described as bordering on pathological. The research sought to identified commonalities and differences amongst the participants and to understand their experiences and behaviour within the context of psychodynamic feminist frameworks. Broadly defined, feminism is a movement organized around the belief that men and women are/should be socially, politically and economically equal. Contemporary feminism, which influences perceptions of female body modification, is split into two distinct strands: one school of feminism views body modification as a form of self-injury and self-mutilation while the other holds that it is a positive resistance in the face of gender norms (Pitts, 2003). This was taken into account in this study. Given that the participants were all women, and that the relationship between body modification and social structures of power/authority are a central concern in feminist literature (Atkinson, 2002), this paradigm was chosen because it provides an appropriate and relevant framework within which to explore the underlying motives and meaning of body piercing for female body piercers. Their attitudes, meaning making processes and relationships with their bodies in relation to their piercings are used to uncover the significance of their body projects and their decisions to be pierced. The central themes which emerged through the thematic data analysis are related back to the feminist literature. Psychoanalysis explores repressed or unconscious impulses, object relations, anxieties, and internal conflicts. For this reason, a psychodynamic framework was used to provide a context within which to explore the unconscious motivations, anxieties and defenses employed by the participants. Freud’s theories of masochism are examined in an attempt to further understand the female body piercer. These are placed within a general psychodynamic framework, and the works of Bowlby, Fonagy, Kernberg, Malan and Winnicott are used to support the findings of the research. The research is based in the qualitative paradigm, with the aim of exploring and describing the body modifier’s thoughts, fantasies, feelings and experiences around being pierced. The data gathered was analyzed using thematic content analysis to elucidate the participants’ reasons for choosing to modify their bodies, and to highlight the meanings of these practices in the context of the their personal histories. In total, six participants were interviewed, although one interview was not included for analysis as it was felt that the data gathered from this interview, while not contradicting the rest of the data gathered, was superficial in content and did not contribute to the research. The excluded participant spoke very broadly and did not really offer much personal information as to the meaning and motives behind her piercings. The research explored the history of body modification, definitions of body modification and body projects, issues pertaining to identity, body image and self concept, expanded consciousness and altered states of being, pain and sadomasochism, the pathologizing of body modification, feminist perspectives on body modification and psychodynamic explanations for body modification. Although much literature abounds on body modification practices, very little is of academic significance. Furthermore, few studies have been conducted into this area from a psychological perspective. In this regard, the writings of Favazza (1996), Featherstone (2003) and Vale & Juno (1989) were used to provide a context within which to place this study. Research papers by Atkinson (2002) and Dennes (2005) also proved particularly useful, and will be discussed in the following chapter.

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo desenvolver uma leitura psicanalítica a respeito do fenômeno contemporâneo da automutilação. A questão que conduziu nossa pesquisa foi a busca pela compreensão acerca da função que os cortes e ferimentos autoinfligidos assumem no que diz respeito ao âmbito do funcionamento psíquico do sujeito. Nossa hipótese inicial era de que o recurso ao ato, na automutilação, consistiria em uma defesa contra a emergência do excesso pulsional traumático. As considerações teóricas de Freud a respeito das neuroses atuais indicaram a existência de um aspecto essencial relacionado ao excesso pulsional: a insuficiência da conexão psíquica, a qual estaria articulada, por sua vez, ao plano do narcisismo. Com isto, introduzimos a dimensão alteritária a fim de compreendermos o processo de constituição do Eu na obra freudiana e a importância da intersubjetividade na teoria do amadurecimento de D. W. Winnicott. Além disso, o fato de que a automutilação tem como objeto o próprio corpo - e, na maior parte dos casos, a pele - indicou a necessidade de uma discussão a respeito destes elementos a partir do referencial teórico da psicanálise. De modo geral, foi possível observar que o fenômeno da automutilação se articula à clínica das configurações narcísicas, marcadas por uma fragilidade decorrente de determinadas especificidades da relação entre o bebê e o objeto primário. Sendo a obra de André Green essencial para esta teorização, utilizamos suas contribuições a respeito do complexo da mãe morta e do trabalho do negativo. Concluímos, a partir destas considerações, que a automutilação assume uma função defensiva contra o sofrimento psíquico do sujeito e, em um sentido mais radical, contra a própria morte psíquica. Além disso, acreditamos que o recurso ao ato também possui, nestes casos, uma dimensão comunicativa, sendo a forma encontrada pelo sujeito para pedir ajuda a partir da convocação ao olhar do outro. Por fim, buscamos compreender qual seria a potência da psicanálise diante deste fenômeno, tendo em vista a importância do reconhecimento do sofrimento destes sujeitos. A fim de ilustrar os recortes teóricos efetuados, também foi proposta uma articulação com materiais extraídos da rede social Tumblr / The present work aims to develop a psychoanalytic reading about the contemporary phenomenon of self - mutilation. The question that led to our research was the pursuit to understand the function that cuts and self-inflicted injuries assume in relation with the psychic functioning of the subject. Our initial hypothesis was that the act of self-mutilation as a resource would consist in a defense against the instinctual excess. Freud\'s theoretical considerations regarding the actual neuroses have indicated the existence of an essential aspect related to the instinctual excess: the insufficiency of the psychic connection, which would be articulated to the level of narcissism. In face of that, we introduce the dimension of alterity in order to understand the process of constitution of the Ego in Freudian theory and the importance of the intersubjectivity in D. Winnicott\'s theory of maturation. In addition, the fact that self-mutilation has the body itself as its object - and, in most cases, the skin - has indicated the need for a discussion about these elements from the theoretical frame of psychoanalysis. Overall, it was possible to observe that the phenomenon of self-mutilation is articulated to the narcissistic constitutions clinical, arranged by a fragility concerning certain specificities of the relationship between the baby and the primary object. Since André Green\'s work is essential for this theorization, we use his contributions about the complex of the dead mother and the work of the negative. We have reached the conclusion that self-mutilation assumes a defensive function against the psychic suffering of the subject and, in a radical sense, against psychic death. Furthermore, we believe that the act as a resource also has a communicative dimension, especially in these cases, when it might be a form that was found by the subject to ask for help from the desire of being really seen. Finally, we try to understand the potencial of psychoanalysis face of this phenomenon, given the importance of recognizing the suffering of these subjects. In order to illustrate the theoretical considerations, we also proposed a link with materials from the online social network Tumblr

Self-injury behavior is identified as the non-suicidal, deliberate infliction of a wound to oneself in an attempt to seek expression. Self-injury is becoming more prevalent in the adolescent population; however, many nursing professionals are unaware of this phenomenon and the implications it holds for nursing. Approximately 12 to 17 percent of adolescents deliberately injure themselves although accurate statistics are difficult to obtain due to the secret and private nature of the behavior. Nurses, especially those who care for adolescents, could benefit from an understanding of the implications of self-injury, the characteristics of adolescents who self-injure, the expressivity of the behavior, and the repetitive patterns of the emotions experienced by adolescents who self-injure. Six adolescent females were interviewed for this study. Their stories were shared in rich, descriptive narratives. Common themes emerged from the words of the participants and these themes described the essence of self-injury by cutting for adolescent females. The themes which emerged were living with childhood trauma, feeling abandoned, being an outsider, loathing self, silently screaming, releasing the pressure, feeling alive, being ashamed, and being hopeful for self and others. The general structure that emerged from a synthesis of the themes was that the experience of self-injury by cutting for adolescent females is one where they are struggling for well-being and hoping for more being by using their skin as a canvas upon which internal pain is expressed as tangible and real. / by Rhonda Goodman Lesniak. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2008. / Includes bibliography. / Electronic reproduction. Boca Raton, Fla., 2008. Mode of access: World Wide Web.

AbstraktBakgrundKvinnlig könsstympning är, en djupt rotad tradition som drabbar över 200 miljoner kvinnor världen över idag. Detta är en olaglig handling i många länder i världen och ett brott mot de mänskliga rättigheterna. Studier har visat att dessa kvinnor upplever allvarliga hälsorisker och komplikationer både fysiskt och psykiskt. Kvinnor som är könsstympade känner sig sårbara och utlämnade i mötet med sjukvården, på grund av brist på förståelse hos sjukvårdspersonalen. Kvinnlig könsstympning är svårt att prata om. Könsstympade kvinnor riskerar att få fel diagnos vilket i sin tur leder till fortsatt ohälsa och diskriminering.SyfteSyftet med denna studie var att beskriva sjukvårdspersonals erfarenheter av att vårda kvinnor som är könsstympade.MetodDetta var en systematisk litteraturstudie med en innehållsanalys enligt Forsberg och Wengström (2013) av 3 kvalitativa och 5 kvantitativa studier.SlutsatsStudien visar att det är svårt att ge vård på lika villkor till kvinnor som är könsstympade om inte sjukvårdspersonalen ges rätt förutsättningar för att göra det. Sjukvårdspersonal känner sig utlämnade, inkompetenta, rädda och oroliga när de vårdar den könsstympade kvinnan. Studien visar att sjukvårdpersonalens avsikt och önskan att ge en jämlik och personcentrerad vård till dessa kvinnor, inte möjliggörs på de olika vårdinrättningar där de arbetar. Studien visar att det behövs tillgängliga och tydligare riktlinjer och behov av mer träning och utbildning.Nyckelord - Healthcare professional, experience, female genital mutilation.Stort tack till Emil Danehorn för hans stöd och uppmuntran genom hela detta arbete.

Bakgrund: Idag lever uppskattningsvis 200 miljoner kvinnor som har utsatts för könsstympning. Till följd av migration från länder där ingreppet praktiseras kommer den västerländska sjukvården att möta könsstympade kvinnor, vilket kan innebära nya utmaningar för vårdpersonalen. Syfte: Att beskriva könsstympade kvinnors upplevelser av mötet med västerländsk sjukvård. Metod: Allmän litteraturstudie med 12 originalartiklar av kvalitativ ansats. Studiernaanalyserades och utifrån teman kunde syftet besvaras. Resultat: Fyra teman framkom; “Könsstympade kvinnor i en främmande kontext”, “Oro och rädsla i mötet med västerländsk sjukvård”, “Kommunikationsbarriärer” samt “Positiva upplevelser i mötet med västerländsk sjukvård”. Resultaten visade att kvinnor upplever känslor av att vara annorlunda, kränkande behandling i form av kommentarer och blickar samt oro och rädsla vad gäller personalens kunskap och kompetens. Vidare beskrevs positiva upplevelser när personal bemötte kvinnorna med respekt samt hade ett professionellt förhållningssätt gentemot dem. Slutsats: Könsstympade kvinnor upplevde många gånger ett negativt bemötande vid kontakt med västerländsk sjukvård. Vårdpersonalens kunskap om ingreppet, samt förståelse och respekt för kvinnornas bakgrund var viktig för deras upplevelse av mötet. Det finns behov av mer forskning i ämnet då den västerländska vården i större utsträckning kommer att möta kvinnor som utsatts för könsstympning, till följd av ökad migration. / Background: It is estimated that 200 million women today are living with female genital mutilation. As a result of migration from countries where the procedure is practiced, Western health care will meet women who have been genital mutilated, which can pose new challenges for healthcare professionals. Aim: To describe genital mutilated women's experience of meetings with Western health care. Method: Literature review with 12 original articles of qualitative approach. The studies were analyzed and, based on themes, the purpose could be answered. Result: Four themes emerged; "Genital mutilated women in a foreign context", “Concern and fear in the meeting with Western health care”, "Communication barriers" and "Positive experiences in the meeting with Western health care". Results showed that women experienced feelings of being different, offensive treatment in the form of comments and looks, and concerns and fears regarding the staff's knowledge and competence. Furthermore, positive experiences were described when staff responded to the women with respect and had a professional attitude towards them. Conclusion: Genital mutilated women often experienced poor treatment in the contact with Western health care. Knowledge of the intervention, as well as understanding and respect for the women's background, were important to their experience of the meeting. There is a need for more research into this subject, as the immigration from countries where genital mutilation is common, are increasing.

Introdução: A automutilação tem sido considerada uma maneira disfuncional de enfrentar situações-problema, geralmente com grande carga emocional, uma vez que pessoas que apresentam este diagnóstico parecem ter poucas estratégias de enfrentamento, dificuldade para regular o afeto e limitada habilidade de resolução de problemas. O início da automutilação geralmente ocorre na adolescência e, na maioria dos casos, ocorre remissão sem precisar de intervenção profissional. Essa remissão estaria associada com o desenvolvimento cognitivo, principalmente com o desenvolvimento de estratégias adequadas de enfrentamento. No entanto, 10% dos casos permanecem com esse comportamento na fase adulta e, muitas vezes, apresentam comorbidades psiquiátricas, caracterizando casos mais graves, com maiores dificuldades cognitivas e habilidades sociais deficitárias. São raros os estudos sobre automutilação em adultos. Assim, verifica-se a necessidade de estudos que avaliem o desempenho das funções executivas nessa população para melhor caracterização e compreensão desse comportamento. Dessa forma, intervenções mais adequadas e eficazes poderão ser desenvolvidas, assim como trabalhos de prevenção. Objetivos: Estudar o desempenho executivo de pacientes que apresentam automutilação, bem como comparar a capacidade de resolução de problemas em pacientes com automutilação a um grupo controle. Método: Estudo descritivo transversal, com amostra de 66 indivíduos, todos com idade superior a 18 anos com, no mínimo, quatro anos de escolaridade formal. Foram comparados dois grupos: o primeiro, com 33 pacientes que procuraram tratamento psiquiátrico devido à automutilação; e o grupo controle, com 33 participantes sem nenhum transtorno psiquiátrico no momento da avaliação. Todos os participantes foram submetidos a uma avaliação psiquiátrica (SCID I/P) para confirmação do diagnóstico e verificação dos critérios de inclusão/exclusão, investigação de sintomas de impulsividade (BIS-11), de comportamento de automutilação (FASM), assim como de depressão e ansiedade (Beck). Também passaram por uma bateria de avaliação neuropsicológica, que contemplou o mapeamento das funções executivas, tais como flexibilidade mental, controle inibitório, planejamento, capacidade de abstração/categorização, memória operacional e tomada de decisão; avaliação da capacidade de resolução de problemas por meio de teste comportamental. O desempenho das funções executivas e da capacidade de resolução de problemas dos participantes com automutilação foi comparado ao desempenho executivo do grupo controle, levando-se em consideração gênero, faixa etária, nível socioeconômico e QI, controlando para escolaridade. Por fim, foram feitas correlações entre gravidade de automutilação e desempenho executivo e desempenho executivo e capacidade de resolução de problemas. Resultados: A maioria dos pacientes era do sexo feminino (81,8%), assim como nos controles (72,7%). A média de idade no grupo de automutilação foi de 29 anos e no grupo controle, 31. No grupo com automutilação, a média de idade de início da automutilação foi de 16 anos. O comportamento mais comum encontrado foi o corte na pele, e a razão mais comum para se engajar no comportamento foi \"para parar os sentimentos negativos\". As comorbidades psiquiátricas mais comuns foram o transtorno depressivo maior (em 60,6%) e transtorno de ansiedade generalizada (em 48,5%). O grupo com automutilação teve pior desempenho nas seguintes funções executivas: flexibilidade mental, controle inibitório, planejamento, tomada de decisão. O grupo de automutilação também apresentou maior impulsividade que os controles e pior desempenho em relação à capacidade de resolução de problema. Observou-se ainda que funções executivas (controle inibitório, planejamento e tomada de decisão) influenciam no processo de tomada de decisão. Houve associação entre pior desempenho em testes que avaliam tomada de decisão (IGT e DDT) com maior gravidade da automutilação (IGT: p = 0,009 e DDT: p = 0,008). Conclusão: Foi possível evidenciar que adultos com automutilação apresentam resultados inferiores quando comparados a controles no que diz respeito a capacidade de resolução de problema, flexibilidade mental, controle inibitório, planejamento e tomada de decisão. Assim, os resultados indicam que as pessoas que iniciam com o comportamento de automutilação na adolescência e persistem até a fase adulta, como uma forma de enfrentamento de situações-problema, demonstram certa imaturidade cognitiva, possivelmente devido a alterações no córtex pré-frontal, impactando no comportamento, nas emoções e nos pensamentos. E, ainda, apresentam automutilação com maior gravidade associada a outros transtornos psiquiátricos. Esses resultados apontam para a necessidade do emprego de intervenções específicas de reabilitação cognitiva no tratamento desses pacientes / Introduction: Self mutilation has been considered a dysfunctional way of dealing with problematic situations, usually with great emotional charge, since people who have such diagnosis appear to have few coping strategies, difficulty to regulate affect and limited problem-solving skill. The beginning of self mutilation usually occurs during adolescence and in most cases there is remission without professional intervention. This remission is associated with the cognitive development, especially with the development of adequate coping strategies. However, 10% of cases remain with this behavior in adulthood and often exhibit psychiatric comorbidities characterizing more severe cases, with higher cognitive and social skills deficit. Studies on self mutilation in adults are rare. Thus, it is verified the need for studies that evaluate the executive functions performances among this population for a better characterization and understanding of this behavior. Therefore, more adequate and effective interventions can be developed, as well as prevention efforts. Objectives: To study the executive performance of patients presenting self mutilation, as well as compare the problem-solving capacity in patients with self mutilation to a control group. Method: Cross-sectional descriptive study with a sample of 66 individuals, all aged over 18 years, with at least four years of formal schooling. Two groups were compared: the first, with 33 patients who sought psychiatric treatment due to self mutilation; and the control group, with 33 participants without any psychiatric disorder at the time of evaluation. All participants underwent a psychiatric evaluation (SCID I / P) to confirm the diagnosis and verification of the inclusion/ exclusion criteria, symptom investigation of impulsivity (BIS-11), self mutilation behavior (FASM), as well as depression and anxiety (Beck). The participants have also undergone a pile of neuropsychological evaluation, which contemplated the mapping of the executive functions, such as mental flexibility, inhibitory control, planning, capacity for abstraction / categorization, working memory and decision making; assessment of problem-solving ability through behavioral test. The performance of the executive functions and problem-solving skills of the participants with self mutilation was compared to the control group executive performance, taking into account gender, age, socioeconomic status and IQ, controlling for educational level. Finally, correlations were made between self mutilation severity, executive performance and problem-solving capability. Results: Most patients were female (81.8%) as well as in controls (72.7%). The average age in the self mutilation group was 29 years and in the control group, 31. In the group presenting self mutilation, the average age of self-injury onset was 16 years. The most common behavior found was skin cutting, and the most common reason for engaging in thus behavior was \"to stop the negative feelings.\" The most common psychiatric comorbidities were the major depressive disorder (60.6%) and generalized anxiety disorder (48.5%). The group with self mutilation had worse performance in the following executive functions: mental flexibility, inhibitory control, planning, decision making. The self mutilation group also had higher impulsivity than the controls and worse performance on problem solving capability. It was also observed that executive functions (inhibitory control, planning and decision making) influence the decision making process. There was association between worse performance on tests that evaluate decision making (IGT and DDT) with higher severity of self mutilation (IGT: p = 0.009 and DDT: p = 0.008). Conclusion: It was possible to evince that adults with self mutilation score lower when compared to controls regarding problem-solving skills, mental flexibility, inhibitory control, planning and decision making. Thus, the results indicate that people who start self mutilation behavior during adolescence and persist into adulthood as a coping mechanism to problematic situations, demonstrate certain cognitive immaturity, possibly due to alterations in the prefrontal cortex, impacting behavior, emotions and thoughts. And further, they exhibit self mutilation with higher severity in association with other psychiatric disorders. These results point to the need for the use of specific cognitive rehabilitation interventions in these patients treatment

Este trabalho tem como objetivo a análise exploratória da automutilação, com o intuito de investigar as representações mentais e os significados presentes neste ato, sob os referenciais teóricos da Psicanálise segundo as perspectivas de Sigmund Freud e autores correlatos, que utilizam este referencial para argüir sobre os sintomas na contemporaneidade. O objeto de estudo são os relatos e informações expostas por um grupo brasileiro que se denomina praticante de automutilação com objetos cortantes e perfurantes, encontrado em uma rede de relacionamentos amplamente divulgada e de domínio público, o Orkut, sob o nome de Self-Mutilation Addicts. A coleta de dados foi dividida em: dados de variáveis descritivas (home dos integrantes desse grupo) que contam com requisitos básicos impostos pelo site para inclusão no Orkut; coleta dos relatos expostos na comunidade Self-Mutilation Addicts (algumas citações da home destes integrantes além da escolha de alguns livros e filmes, que posteriormente foram analisados segundo o referencial psicanalítico). Para os relatos analisados segundo a interpretação psicanalítica, usou-se como parâmetros os fundamentos teóricos sobre a formação do sintoma, da angústia, da ritualização e da compulsão à repetição, descritos por Freud e outros autores como Lacan e Laplanche, assim como a análise do período sócio-histórico e cultural exposta por autores como Slavoj Zizek, Joel Birman, Nelson da Silva Junior, Gilles Lipovetsky e outros. Esta pesquisa visa trazer maior compreensão do sintoma de automutilação e espera-se assegurar a continuidade dos estudos mesmo após sua conclusão / The goal of this work is the exploring analysis of the self-mutilation, in order to investigate the mental representation and the meanings within this act, over the referential theory of Psychoanalysis according to Sigmund Freuds perspectives and correlated authors that use this referential to question about the symptoms on modern society. The study subjects are stories and information from a Brazilian group that proclaim to practice self-mutilation with razor edge and piercing objects, found in a widely publicized and under public domain social network, known as Orkut, under the nickname Self-Mutilation Addicts. The gathering of data will be divided between Variable Descriptive Data (Group homepage), that illustrates the basic requirements held by the website for the inclusion on Orkut; collection of exposed data on the web community Self-Mutilation Addicts; some members quotations from the homepages and the choice of some books and movies that further more will be analyzed according to the psychoanalytic interpretation, using fundamental theory parameters over symptoms formation: the torment, the rite and the repetition urge described by Freud and other authorities such as Lacan and Laplanche, as well as historical, social and cultural time analysis described by authors such as Slavoj Zizek, Joel Birman, Nelson da Silva Junior, Gilles Lipovetsky and others. This research seeks to find greater understanding on the self-mutilation symptom and hopes to assure its ongoing studies even after its conclusions

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a global problem that stems from gender inequality. Increased migration from countries that perform FGM to England has led to the practice travelling across borders. FGM is subject to heightened political debate and media sensitivity in the England and across the Western world. Debates about FGM often proceed from a universal standpoint that the practice should be prohibited through law. However, the efficacy of FGM legislation is questionable and rarely subjected to scrutiny. Despite implementing a criminal offence of FGM in 1985 and introducing subsequent stringent legal changes, there has not been one conviction for a practice, which remains prevalent in England. A failure to secure convictions for a practice that continues suggests that the law has left women and girls unprotected. To understand why the practice persists in a context in which FGM is criminalised, this thesis aims to address the potential and limitations of social and cultural change through the law. My qualitative research findings are based on two focus groups each with 11 women from FGM-performing communities and 79 semi-structured interviews with women and stakeholders who are responsible for designing and enforcing FGM legislation, including legal professionals, police officers, Members of Parliament and Members of the House of Lords. I chose to interview these two groups of participants to understand the different perspectives of women subject to the law and stakeholders responsible for enforcing the law. The interview data shows the importance of an intersectional analysis of FGM that accounts for women’s experiences of gender, race, ethnicity, nation, nationality and religion. While FGM is performed upon girls and women’s bodies to control their sexuality, women also identified FGM as representative of other identity issues including race, group rights, migrant culture and religion. The data highlights the complex meanings women ascribe to FGM and the challenges they encounter in accessing the criminal justice system. In contrast, stakeholders believe anti-FGM legislation is a means for the state to eliminate ‘cultural’ violence against women and girls and enforce British values upon minority groups. The findings from the interviews with women and stakeholders revealed a stark divide in the two groups understanding of FGM and their attitudes towards the law. Examining FGM in the context of criminalisation from two different perspectives highlights the core barriers to the enforcement of law.