Le système ubiquitine-protéasome représente une plateforme de signalisation cellulaire chez les eucaryotes et joue un rôle majeur dans la coordination des processus cellulaires. Des progrès récents suggèrent que l’ubiquitination joue un rôle important dans les phénomènes de séparation de phase liquide-liquide (LLPS), un processus permettant la localisation d’une quantité accrue de protéines dans un compartiment subcellulaire, afin de réaliser une fonction biologique. En effet, il a été démontré que l’ubiquitination joue un rôle central dans les mécanismes qui gouvernent la LLPS durant la formation des granules de stress dans le cytoplasme ou les foci de réparation de l’ADN dans le noyau. D’autre part, chez la levure, des travaux ont montré que le protéasome est capable de s’assembler sous forme de granules dans le cytoplasme suite à un stress métabolique. Toutefois, les mécanismes par lesquels le système ubiquitine-protéasome ainsi que ses régulateurs contrôlent les processus de LLPS restent à déterminer. Dans la première étude de cette thèse, nous avons investigué le mécanisme d’action de la déubiquitinase USP16, qui a été suggérée comme un régulateur négatif de la LLPS, empêchant la formation des foci de réparations de dommages à l’ADN. Cependant, nos résultats démontrent que USP16 est majoritairement cytoplasmique et que seulement une entrée forcée de USP16 dans le noyau empêche la formation des foci de réparation des cassures double brin induites par des radiations ionisagntes et ce en favorisant la déubiquitination de l’histone H2A. De plus, aucune translocation nucléaire de USP16 n’a été observée durant le cycle cellulaire ou suite à des dommages à l’ADN. Nos travaux montrent que USP16 est activement exclue du noyau via son signal d’export nucléaire et régulerait indirectement la LLPS menant à la formation des foci de réparation de l’ADN. Dans la deuxième étude, nous décrivons le comportement dynamique des protéines du protéasome lors d’une LLPS induite par un stress métabolique. Nos résultats indiquent que le protéasome forme des foci distincts dans le noyau des cellules humaines en réponse à une privation de nutriments. Nous avons constaté que ces foci sont enrichis en ubiquitine conjuguée et nous avons démontré que le récepteur d’ubiquitine Rad23B ainsi que l’absence des acides aminés non essentiels sont des éléments clés nécessaires à l’assemblage de ces foci du iv protéasome. De plus, des expériences de survie cellulaire montrent que la présence de ces foci est associée à la mort des cellules par apoptose. En conclusion, nos travaux mettent en lumière l’importance du système ubiquitine-protéasome dans la formation et la régulation des foci cellulaires suite à une LLPS. De même, cette étude aidera également à approfondir notre compréhension sur les mécanismes qui gouvernent l’homéostasie des protéines, la survie cellulaire et le développement du cancer. / The ubiquitin-proteasome system represents a major cell-signaling platform in eukaryotes and plays a pivotal role in the coordination of cellular processes. Recent studies provided evidence that ubiquitination plays a role in liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS), a process that results in the localization of highly increased levels of a protein in a defined subcellular compartment, in order to achieve a biological function. Indeed, ubiquitination has been shown to play a central role in the mechanisms that govern LLPS and subsequent formation of stress granules in the cytoplasm or the DNA repair foci in the nucleus. On the other hand, several studies have shown that the proteasome itself is able to form granules in the cytoplasm following metabolic stress in yeasts. However, the mechanisms by which the ubiquitin-proteasome system and its regulators control LLPS processes remain to be determined. In the first study of this thesis, we investigated the mechanism of action of USP16 deubiquitinase, which has been suggested as a negative regulator of LLPS preventing the formation of DNA damage repair foci. However, our results demonstrate that USP16 is predominantly cytoplasmic and that only enforced nuclear entry of USP16 prevents the formation of repair foci after double strand breaks induced by ionizing radiation, and this by promoting the deubiquitination of histone H2A. In addition, no nuclear translocation of USP16 was observed during cell cycle or following DNA damage. Our study shows that USP16 is actively excluded from the nucleus via its nuclear export signal and would indirectly regulate LLPS that lead to DNA repair foci. In the second study, we describe the dynamic behavior of proteasome proteins during metabolic stress, a process that involves LLPS. Our results indicate that the proteasome forms distinct foci in the nucleus of human cells in response to nutrients deprivation. We found that these foci are enriched with conjugated ubiquitin and demonstrated that the ubiquitin receptor Rad23B as well as the absence of nonessential amino acids are the key elements necessary for the assembly of these proteasome foci. In addition, cell survival experiments show that the presence of these foci is associated with cell death by apoptosis. In conclusion, our work has shed new light on the importance of the ubiquitin-proteasome system in the formation and regulation of cell foci following LLPS. Likewise, this vi study will also help deepen our understanding of the mechanisms leading to protein homeostasis, cell survival and cancer development.

Im Unterschied zu anderen RNA Viren vervielfältigen Influenzaviren ihr Genom im Zellkern infizierter Zellen. Für die erfolgreiche Vermehrung müssen neu gebildete Genomsegmente (virale Ribonukleoproteine, vRNPs) wieder aus dem Zellkern exportiert werden. Dafür nutzt Influenza einen Exportkomplex, der sich aus dem viralen Matrixprotein 1 (M1) und Nukleusexportprotein (NEP) zusammensetzt und vRNPs unter Verwendung des zellulären Exportproteins CRM1 aus dem Zellkern transportiert. Zahlreiche Fragen im Zusammenhang mit dem Exportkomplex sind noch unbeantwortet: Wie viele Exportkomplexe werden pro vRNP gebunden? Wie interagieren die Proteine innerhalb des Komplexes mit vRNPs? Wie wird die zeitliche und räumliche Präsenz der beteiligten Proteine im Verlauf der Infektion reguliert? Um zu einem besseren Verständnis beizutragen, wurden in der vorliegenden Arbeit Fluoreszenzfluktuationsspektroskopie und molecular brightness-Analysen genutzt, um die Oligomerisierung der beteiligten Exportkomplexproteine zu quantifizieren. Werden Fluoreszenzproteine für solche Untersuchungen verwendet, treten häufig nicht-fluoreszente Zustände auf, die die Bestimmung des Oligomerzustandes beeinflussen. Daher wurde in dieser Arbeit ein einfaches Korrekturmodel vorgestellt, das die Population an nicht-fluoreszenten Zuständen berücksichtigt, und somit die genaue Bestimmung des Oligomerzustandes erlaubt. Dadurch konnte zum ersten Mal gezeigt werden, dass NEP Homodimere im Zytoplasma ausbildet, wohingegen eine um das 2,5-fach geringere Homodimerpopulation im Zellkern vorhanden war. Durch die Integration von Informationen über den Lokalisationsphänotyp und den Oligomerzustand von NEP sowie mehrerer Mutanten, konnte ein Modell abgeleitet werden, dass den Regulationsmechanismus beschreibt: Durch vorrübergehendes Maskieren und Demaskieren der beiden Nukleusexportsignale wird der Transport von NEP reguliert. Die Dimerisierung im Zytoplasma und Monomerisierung im Zellkern unterstützen diesen Mechanismus. / Influenza viruses are the causative agent of severe epidemics and pandemics, causing up to 650,000 deaths annually. Unlike other RNA viruses, Influenza viruses replicate their genome within the nucleus of cells. Hence, progeny genome segments - viral ribonucleoproteins (vRNPs) - need to be exported from the nucleus to complete the replication cycle. To fulfil this task, Influenza relies on a viral nuclear export complex built from M1 and NEP, that mediates export by hijacking the cellular CRM1-dependent export machinery. In this context a number of questions remain unanswered, such as how many export complexes bind to a single vRNP, what is the exact interaction pattern of vRNPs with export complex proteins, and how translocation of nuclear export relevant proteins such as NEP are regulated and optimally timed during the course of infection? In the present study, the potential of NEP to form homo-dimers in situ was shown for the first time by applying fluorescence fluctuation spectroscopy (FFS) and molecular brightness analysis, that allows determination of protein oligomerization in living cells. However, when using fluorescent proteins in FFS studies non-fluorescent states are observed, which strongly affect molecular brightness analysis. Therefore, in this study a simple correction model was described, taking into account quantified non-fluorescent state fractions, to finally allow accurate and unbiased determination of oligomerization. This way it was shown, that NEP forms homo-dimers within the cytoplasm of cells, whereas a 2.5-fold lower homo-dimer population was observed in the nucleus. Combining the subcellular localization dependent oligomeric state of NEP and several NEP mutants with their localization phenotypes, a regulation mechanism was proposed in which the translocation of NEP is regulated by transient masking and unmasking of its two NESs, which is supported by dimerization in the cytoplasm and monomerization in the nucleus of cells, respectively.

A cellular pre-mRNA undergoes various post-transcriptional processing events, including capping, splicing and polyadenylation prior to nuclear export. Splicing is particularly important for mRNA nuclear export as two distinct multi-protein complexes, known as human TREX (hTREX) and the exon-junction complex (EJC), are recruited to the mRNA in a splicing-dependent manner. In contrast, a number of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) lytic mRNAs lack introns and are exported by the virus-encoded ORF57 protein. Herein we show that ORF57 binds to intronless viral mRNAs and functions to recruit the complete hTREX complex, but not the EJC, in order assemble an export component viral ribonucleoprotein particle (vRNP). The formation of this vRNP is mediated by a direct interaction between ORF57 and the hTREX export adapter protein, Aly. Aly in turn interacts directly with the DEAD-box protein UAP56, which functions as a bridge to recruit the remaining hTREX proteins to the complex. Moreover, we show that a point mutation in ORF57 which disrupts the ORF57-Aly interaction leads to a failure in the ORF57-mediated recruitment of the entire hTREX complex to the intronless viral mRNA and inhibits the mRNAs subsequent nuclear export and virus replication. Furthermore, we have utilised a trans-dominant Aly mutant to prevent the assembly of the complete ORF57-hTREX complex; this results in a vRNP consisting of viral mRNA bound to ORF57, Aly and the nuclear export factor, TAP. Strikingly, although both the export adapter Aly and the export factor TAP were present on the viral mRNP, a dramatic decrease in intronless viral mRNA export and virus replication was observed in the absence of the remaining hTREX components (UAP56 and hTHO-complex). Together, these data provide the first direct evidence that the complete hTREX complex is essential for the export of KSHV intronless mRNAs and infectious virus production.

The nucleo-cytoplasmic compartmentalization enables eukaryotic cells to develop sophisticated post-transcriptional regulations of gene expression. However, managing the exchanges of macromolecules between the two compartments also represents a formidable challenge for the cells. Nucleo-cytoplasmic exchanges rely on specialized soluble carriers and take place at nuclear pore complexes that span the nuclear envelope. Active nucleo-cytoplasmic transport of proteins, in particular, is performed mainly by a family of carriers called karyopherins, which includes about twenty members in mammals. Some of them, called importins, recognize nuclear localization signals (NLSs) in their substrates and convey them into the nucleus. Others, called exportins, recognize nuclear export signals (NESs) in their substrates and bring them back to the cytoplasm. <p>Many RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) shuttle between the nucleus and the cytoplasm, where they can often fulfill different functions. RBPs also frequently localize into specialized microdomains that are not delimited by a membrane but in which specific factors are concentrated. Those include processing bodies and stress granules, which are cytoplasmic foci associated with mRNA decay, storage and translational repression. Post-transcriptional regulations mediated by RBPs can therefore be modulated rapidly and efficiently through changes in the localization of RBPs.<p>The first part of this work focuses on the subcellular localization and nucleo-cytoplasmic transport of the Drosophila RBP dTIS11. Like its mammalian and yeast homologues, dTIS11 binds AU-rich elements in the 3’UTR of its target mRNAs, and stimulates their rapid deadenylation and decay. Here, we have observed that although dTIS11 appears to be located mostly in the cytoplasm, it is constantly shuttling in and out of the nucleus. We show that the export of dTIS11 from the nucleus depends on the CRM1 exportin and is mediated by a hydrophobic NES that encompasses residues 101 to 113 in dTIS11 sequence. We also identify a cryptic Transportin-dependent PY nuclear localization signal (PY-NLS) in the tandem zinc finger region of dTIS11 and show that it is conserved across the TIS11 protein family. This PY-NLS partially overlaps the second zinc finger (ZnF2) of dTIS11. Importantly, mutations disrupting the capacity of the ZnF2 to coordinate a Zn2+ ion unmask dTIS11 and TTP PY-NLS and promote nuclear import. Taken together, our results indicate that the nuclear export of Drosophila and mammalian TIS11 proteins is mediated by CRM1 through diverging NESs, while their nuclear import mechanism might rely on a conserved PY-NLS whose activity is negatively regulated by ZnF2 folding.<p>In the second part, we present preliminary results which implicate the nucleo-cytoplasmic transport machinery in the assembly of stress granules (SGs) in mammalian cells. SGs contain silenced mRNPs which resemble stalled initiation complexes, and they form transiently in response to acute stress, concomitantly with a global arrest of translation. While their exact role remains undefined, it seems clear that SGs are able to exchange mRNPs with polysomes and with PBs, and that they are connected to post-transcriptional and translational regulations of gene expression during stress. Here, we show that inhibition of Transportin-1 expression or function does not affect the translational status of cells but impairs the assembly of stress granules. Finally, we show that Transportin-1 and -2B, but not -2A, localize into stress granules in response to several stresses. <p>In conclusion, we suggest two potential new roles for Transportins, in the nucleo-cytoplasmic traffic of TIS11 proteins on the one hand and in the assembly of stress granules on the other hand.<p>/<p>Le compartimentage nucléo-cytoplasmique permet aux cellules eucaryotes de réguler l’expression génétique par des mécanismes post-transcriptionnels élaborés. Les ARN messagers subissent plusieurs étapes de maturation dans le noyau avant d’être exportés vers le cytoplasme où ils sont traduits et dégradés. Ces processus sont effectués via des protéines de liaison à l’ARN, ou RBPs. Beaucoup de RBPs exercent des fonctions différentes dans le noyau et dans le cytoplasme, et leur activité peut dès lors être rapidement modulée par une modification de leur localisation.<p>Le transport nucléo-cytoplasmique actif des protéines s’effectue à travers les pores nucléaires et fait majoritairement appel à des transporteurs solubles de la famille des karyophérines. Ceux-ci reconnaissent au sein des protéines à transporter une séquence-passeport appelée NLS (nuclear localization signal) ou NES (nuclear export signal) selon la direction nécessitée. <p>Le présent travail comporte deux parties. La première porte sur la localisation subcellulaire et le transport nucléo-cytoplasmique des protéines de la famille TIS11, et plus particulièrement de dTIS11 qui est le seul représentant de cette famille chez la Drosophile. Comme ses homologues dans d’autres espèces, dTIS11 est une RBP qui favorise la déadénylation et la dégradation de ses ARN messagers cibles. Nos résultats démontrent que dTIS11 fait la navette entre le noyau et le cytoplasme. L’export de dTIS11 hors du noyau est réalisé par la karyophérine CRM1 et fait appel à un NES différent de celui présent chez les protéines TIS11 mammaliennes. Nous identifions également un NLS cryptique au sein du domaine à deux doigts de zinc avec lequel dTIS11 lie l’ARN. Ce NLS correspond partiellement au signal consensus reconnu par la Transportine. Il est démasqué par la mutation du second doigt de zinc ;dans ces conditions, il permet l’import de dTIS11 par la Transportine. Enfin, nous montrons qu’il est conservé dans d’autres protéines de la famille TIS11. <p>Dans la seconde partie, nous nous intéressons aux granules de stress, qui sont des microdomaines cytoplasmiques dans lesquels se concentrent des RBPs et des ARN messagers non traduits en réponse à un stress cellulaire. Nous montrons que les karyophérines appartenant à la sous-famille des Transportines sont présentes dans ces granules et que l’inhibition de l’expression ou de la fonction des Transportines réduit la formation de ces granules en réponse à divers stress cellulaires. Nous écartons la possibilité que ce résultat soit un effet indirect d’un ralentissement du métabolisme traductionnel. Nos résultats suggèrent donc une implication des Transportines dans la formation des granules de stress. <p> / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

One of the important tasks of virology and immunology is to explore the species- and cell-barriers preventing virus horizontal transmission and reveal the ways how viruses overcome these barriers and "adapt" to different species. This work is based on a well- established retroviral model - avian Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) and studies virus replication blocks in mammalian cells at both pre- and post-integration level. Interaction of the viral envelope glycoprotein (Env) with a specific cellular receptor mediates virus entry into cells. Although mammalian orthologues of specific chicken receptors do not support RSV entry, it was observed that some RSV strains are able to enter mammalian cells. Several RSV-transformed rodent cells lines were described and analysis of provirus H20- RSV in one these cells lines (hamster H-20 tumor cell line) showed multiple mutations including two crucial amino acid substitutions in different regions of Env. Substitutions D32G and L378S confer virus transmission to hamster, human and also chicken cells lacking the appropriate receptor. Altered conformation of H20-RSV Env is similar to a receptor-primed (activated) state of Env. This observation indicates that virus can circumvent the need of original cell receptor because of spontaneous Env activation caused by single...