O uso de \"pigmento frio\" é uma alternativa para minimizar os efeitos de \"ilhas de calor\" em grandes cidades como São Paulo. Este tipo de pigmento proporciona o desenvolvimento de fórmulas de tinta para aplicação em coberturas com cores escuras, próximo ao preto, apresentando refletância solar (SR) maior. Neste estudo, foi formulado um grupo de tintas na cor cinza claro e outro na cor cinza escuro. O primeiro grupo de tintas foi preparado com adição de pigmento preto convencional, o negro de fumo que possui natureza orgânica e o segundo grupo de tintas foi preparado com adição de \"pigmento frio\", que possui natureza inorgânica. A fração pigmentária de ambos os grupos de tintas foi preparada com auxílio do software \"CoolSim\". A revisão bibliográfica mostra que as tintas preparadas com pigmentos de natureza orgânica apresentam baixa refletância solar enquanto que as tintas preparadas com o uso do \"pigmento frio\" apresentam maior refletância solar. Os resultados de refletância solar de ambos os grupos de tintas confirmam os dados apresentados na revisão da bibliográfica. As fórmulas preparadas com o uso de \"pigmento frio\", mesmo tendo cor escura, resulta em produto mais adequado para a aplicação em superfície de cobertura como telha, devido sua capacidade de absorver menos calor, o que contribui na redução da temperatura do edifício, reduzindo a necessidade de uso de ar condicionado e auxiliando na redução do consumo de energia. / The use of \"cool pigment\" is one of the alternatives to minimize the effects of \"heat islands\" in big cities like São Paulo. This type of pigment provides the development of formulas for painting roofs with dark colors, near black, but showing higher solar reflectance (SR) than conventional pigments. In this study, a group of paint was formulated in light gray color and the other in dark gray color. The first group of paints was prepared with addition of conventional black pigment which is the carbon black that has organic nature. The second group of paints was prepared with addition of \"cool pigment\", which has inorganic nature. The pigment fraction of both groups of paints was obtained using the software \"CoolSim\". The literature review shows that finishes obtained with paints prepared with organic nature pigment has lower solar reflectance and finishes obtained with paints prepared with addition of \"cool pigment\", with inorganic nature, have a higher solar reflectance. The results of the study show that the solar reflectance of both groups of paint confirms the data obtained in the literature review. The paint formulas prepared with addition of \"cool pigment\", even presenting dark color, resulted in film more adequate for the application in surfaces of roofs and tiles due their capacity to absorb less heat. The use of \"cool pigment\" in formulas allow to obtain paints that can contribute to the reduction of the temperature of the building, by reduction the need to use air conditioning, resulting in lower energy consumption.

Materiais de construção como: adesivos, selantes, aglomerados, compensados, carpetes, revestimentos de parede, isolamentos, forros acústicos etc., emitem compostos orgânicos volateis (COVs) em ambientes internos (Niu e Burnett, 2001). No caso da tinta no Brasil, Salasar (2006) indica que \"as tintas à base de solventes emitem 520 vezes mais COVs em relação às tintas à base de água\". Consequentemente aumentos significativos na concentração de poluentes químicos e biológicos do ar em ambientes internos são provocados pelas baixas taxas de troca de ar em conjunto com a emissão de COVs originados pelos materiais de construção dos ambientes internos (Gioda & Neto, 2003). O objetivo nesta pesquisa é identificar compostos orgânicos volateis nas emissões de tintas imobiliárias usadas em ambientes internos na cidade de São Carlos. O laboratório foi realizado com o equipamento de cromatografia gasosa acoplado a espectrometria de massas, com siglas GC/MS, junto com o aparelho para extração da amostra chamado de micro extração de fase sólida (SPME), para duas amostras de cada tinta sendo uma fresca (úmida) e outra seca. O laboratório GC/MS quando é utilizado com micro extração de fase sólida (SPME) é o método mais aproximado do ideal, já que permite qualificar os COVs contidos nas amostras de tinta com maior eficiência que qualquer outro método (Koziel & Pawliszym, 2001). A escolha das tintas, esmaltes e o verniz foram determinadas como aquelas de maior uso e venda entre os pintores e lojas de tintas, respectivamente, na cidade de São Carlos. Os resultados mostraram que as tintas podem chegar a emitir juntas mais de 61 compostos orgânicos voláteis, a maior parte deles causa irritação respiratória e cinco desses compostos são suspeitos de desenvolver câncer, a concentração de cada composto não foi determinada. Uma suposição é que a saúde dos pintores pode estar sendo afetada, pois eles têm contato constante com as emissões das tintas, neste sentido é preocupante que esses trabalhadores da construção civil sejam informais, pois nesta condição o risco à sua saúde pode ser agravado devido à falta de capacitação necessária sobre a utilização do material que estão manipulando. Parte do resultado da pesquisa mostra também por meio de um questionário, as marcas de tintas imobiliárias comumente usadas na cidade de São Carlos, assim como uma noção sobre as doenças que as tintas produzem. O questionário foi elaborado para 40 pessoas entre pintores e vendedores de lojas de tinta na cidade de São Carlos. As fichas de segurança de produtos químicos FISPQ correspondentes para cada tinta omitem informações sobre alguns ingredientes considerados de risco encontrados nas amostras de tintas, como por exemplo, compostos suspeitos de desenvolver câncer. É importante para o Brasil a criação com urgência de um selo ambiental confiável que garanta a baixa concentração de emissão de COVs nas tintas como produto, mediante valores quantificáveis. Se similar ao selo \"Green Seal\", o mesmo daria não só uma forma de controle sobre a emissão de COVs nos prédios senão confiabilidade e garantia. O selo será um parâmetro de exigência nas certificações ambientais para confirmar as baixas emissões de COVs nos materiais das edificações sustentáveis, que até agora são inexistentes. / Building materials such as: Adhesives, sealants, plywood, carpeting, wall coverings, insulation, acoustic ceilings etc., emit volatiles organic compounds (VOCs) in indoor environments (Niu e Burnett, 2001). In the case of the paint in Brazil, Salasar (2006) indicates that \"solvent-based paints emit VOCs 520 times as compared to water-based paint.\". Consequently significant concentration of chemical and biological pollutants from indoor air, are caused by low rates of air exchange in conjunction with the emission of VOCs originating from the construction of the indoor materials (Gioda & Neto, 2003). The objective of this research is to identify volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions from architectural coatings used indoors in São Carlos. The laboratory was performed with gas chromatography equipment coupled to mass spectrometry with acronyms GC/MS, with the instrument for sample extraction called solid phase micro extraction (SPME) for two samples of each paint: a fresh (wet) and a dry. The GC/MS laboratory when used with solid phase micro extraction (SPME) is the closest to the ideal method, allows to qualify the VOCs contained in the paint samples more efficiently than any other method (Pawliszym & Koziel, 2001). The choice of paints, enamels and varnish were determined as those of greater use and sale among painters and paint stores, respectively, in the city of São Carlos. The results showed that the paint can issue more than 61 volatile organic compounds, most of them cause respiratory irritation and five of these compounds are suspected of developing cancer, the concentration of each compound was not determined. One of the hypotheses is that the health of painters may be being affected, as they have constant contact with emissions from paints,in this respect it is wrong that these workers of the construction are informal, because in this condition the risk to your health can be aggravated due to lack of necessary training on the use of the material. Part of the search result also shows by means of a questionnaire , the marks of paints commonly used in the city of São Carlos, as well as a notion about the diseases that produce the paints. The questionnaire was designed in 40 people between painters and sellers of paint shops in the city of São Carlos. Safety data sheets for chemicals corresponding MSDS for each paint omit some information about ingredients considered risk in samples of paints, such as examples, compounds suspected of developing cancer. It is important for Brazil to urgently create a reliable environmental seal that ensures low emission concentration of VOCs in paints and product through quantifiable values . If the seal is similar to the seal \"Green Seal\", it would not only a form of control over the emission of VOCs in buildings too reliability and warranty The stamp will be a requirement parameter in environmental certifications to confirm low emissions of VOCs in materials of sustainable buildings , which until now are nonexistent.

Ces travaux de thèse ont pour but d'obtenir une meilleure connaissance des mécanismes de dégradation, lors de l'exposition à un milieu agressif, de primaires de peinture en phase aqueuse (époxy-polyamino amide) utilisés dans l'industrie aéronautique pour la protection contre la corrosion de l'alliage d'aluminium 2024 à l'aide des techniques d'impédances globale et locale. Deux revêtements formulés soit avec du chromate de strontium soit avec un mélange de pigments non-chromatés ont été comparés. Les diagrammes d'impédance des deux revêtements, mesurés dans des conditions sèches (en contact avec Hg), présentent un comportement proche de celui d'une capacité pure, et ont été analysés à l'aide du modèle en loi de puissance, qui correspond à un comportement CPE (Constant Phase Element). Lors de l'immersion dans une solution chlorurée, le comportement des revêtements s'écarte progressivement de l'idéalité. Les données d'impédance électrochimique obtenues pour différents temps d'immersion ont été analysées avec un modèle qui suppose une variation exponentielle de la résistivité le long de l'épaisseur du revêtement (modèle de Young). Cette analyse a confirmé que la pénétration de l'eau et des ions dans le revêtement ne se fait pas de façon identique. La vitesse de pénétration de l'eau est plus rapide et celle-ci affecte plus fortement la permittivité que la résistivité, alors que la diffusion des ions Na+ et Cl- est plus lente et affecte exclusivement la résistivité du revêtement. L'utilisation de ces modèles permet non seulement d'expliquer les comportements CPE et pseudo CPE observés sur les diagrammes d'impédance mais aussi de déterminer la prise en eau des revêtements durant le test. Celle-ci est en accord avec des mesures gravimétriques. L'effet d'auto-cicatrisation des deux revêtements en présence de blessures artificielles a ensuite été étudié par spectroscopie d'impédance électrochimique locale. Les diagrammes locaux et les cartographies (2D ou 3D) ont permis de suivre les phénomènes d'auto-cicatrisation pour le système chromaté ou bien le développement de la corrosion pour le système non-chromaté. Ce travail de thèse propose une méthodologie qui servira de référence pour développer et caractériser les performances de peintures contenant des inhibiteurs écologiques et en particulier leur processus d'auto-cicatrisation. / The aim of this work is to obtain a better understanding of the degradation mechanisms, as a function of exposition time in an aggressive environment, of commercial coatings (epoxy-polyaminoamide waterborne paint) used in aeronautical industry for corrosion protection of 2024 aluminium alloy by global and local impedance techniques. The coatings formulated with either strontium chromate (SrCrO4) or Cr(VI)-free pigments were compared. The behavior of dry coatings (in contact with Hg) was close to that of an ideal capacitor and could be accurately modelled with the power-law model corresponding to a CPE (Constant Phase Element). Upon immersion in NaCl solution, the behavior of the wet coatings became progressively less ideal, i.e. farther from a capacitive behavior. The impedance data was analyzed with the Young model that take into account the exponential variation of the coating resistivity along its thickness. This analysis confirmed that penetration of water and ions occurs on different time scales. The former process is faster and affects permittivity more strongly than resistivity; the latter is slower and affects almost exclusively resistivity. The models allows to explain not only the CPE or pseudo-CPE behaviors observed on impedance diagrams but also to determine the coatings water uptake during the test which is in good agreement with gravimetric measurements. Then, the self-healing properties of artificially damaged coatings were studied by local electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (LEIS). The local diagrams and the mappings (2D or 3D) allowed self-healing processes for the chromated system or corrosion developments for the unchromated system to be observed. The present work proposed a methodology to develop and to characterize coatings containing environmentally friendly inhibitors, and particularly the self-healing process.

This thesis was written up as a proposal for business activities in field of retail sale of paints, lacquers and varnishes. The business activity will be realised according to this activity as self-employed trade and non-profit organization will be used as auspices. At the time of writing this thesis market analysis has been performed by self-employed trader via trial opening of the shop. This shop opening provided useful information for business plan proposal.

L’interaction des phénomènes de transfert de chaleur et de masse dans un tissu urbain avec les apports anthropiques participent à l’îlot de chaleur urbain et à la dégradation de la performance énergétique des bâtiments. L’objectif de cette étude est de définir l’impact de la modification des propriétés radiatives aux façades des bâtiments qui peut être réalisée par l’utilisation de revêtements sélectifs colorés récemment développés pour les toitures. Les flux sensibles et l’impact sur les bâtiments sont étudiés pour une morphologie caractéristique des milieux urbains denses, la rue canyon. Un suivi expérimental mené sur des surfaces élémentaires de propriétés radiatives différentes nous a permis de développer par une méthode d’optimisation un procédé de détermination simultané du coefficient de convection et des absorptivités solaires effectives sur la période de mesure. L’utilisation de peintures sélectives dans la configuration canyon retenue est ensuite analysée expérimentalement. Pour cela une maquette (1/10ème) de scène urbaine a été conçue sur la base de 5 rangées de cuves de béton creux qui ont fait l’objet de mesures de températures et de flux radiatifs. Dans un premier temps, le traitement de deux mois de mesures a permis de caractériser les évolutions de champs de températures liés à cette forme urbaine. Par la suite, trois configurations de propriétés radiatives aux façades ont été étudiées simultanément et ont permis d’analyser les modifications spécifiques sur les champs de température, de sur-faces et d’air. Afin d’estimer les économies d’énergie réalisables sur un bâtiment réel ainsi que l’impact sur son environnement proche, une étude paramétrique des revêtements de façade et de la chaussée a été effectuée par des simulations de l’interaction du bâti et du micro-climat. Les méthodes et expériences établies dans cette étude nous permettent d’envisager le développement du traitement des façades et de la caractérisation de leurs performances globales. / Modified heat and mass transfer in the urban built and anthropogenic loads contribute to the urban heat island phenomenon as to the deterioration of building energy efficiency. The scope of this study is to define the impact implied by the modification of façade radiative properties that can be achieved by using selective cool-coloured coatings initially developed for roofing. Sensible heat transfers and consequences on building comfort are studied through a characteristic morphology from dense urban environment, the street canyon. Monitoring of surface energy budget on elementary discs of different radiative properties allowed us to develop, through optimisation method, a process to determine simultaneously the effective solar absorptivities and a convective heat transfer coefficient on the measurement period. The following step consists in an experimental analysis of cool selective paints in the chosen canyon configuration. A reduced-scale model (1/10th) of an urban scene has been designed with 5 rows of hollow concrete tanks that had temperatures and radiative fluxes monitored. Measured data for uniform coatings allowed highlighting the temperature evolution linked to the particular urban form. Afterwards, three façades radiative properties configurations have been studied simultaneously and allowed the analysis of those specific modifications on air and surface temperature fields. Lastly, in order to estimate energy consumption savings on real scale buildings as well as the impact on the near urban environment, a parametric study on coating of façades and roads has been performed through simulation taking into account interactive heat transfers between the built environment and the microclimate. The experiments and methods designed along the study permit to consider façade coating development and global efficiency characterization.

Orientador: Teodoro Vaske Junior / Resumo: A utilização de tintas anti-incrustantes é mandatória para embarcações e outras estruturas submersas na água do mar. Existem diversas vantagens em utilizar estas tintas como ganho em tempo e em velocidade de operações, e menor gasto de combustível, pois a bioincrustação aumenta a rugosidade da superfície e diminui a hidrodinâmica das embarcações. Em geral, a maioria destas tintas contém biocidas que evitam que os organismos incrustantes consigam se estabelecer sobre a superfície das embarcações. Esses biocidas por sua vez, acabam por serem liberados das pinturas provocando danos aos ecossistemas, como, por exemplo, o imposex, que é a masculinização de fêmeas de moluscos gastrópodes, um problema de disrupção endócrina causada pelo tributilestanho (TBT). Novos biocidas surgiram no mercado global após o banimento do TBT como alternativas menos danosas, porém muitos estudos comprovam efeitos prejudiciais a biodiversidade aquática, principalmente quando combinados. No Brasil, as regulamentações ambientais que dizem respeito às tintas anti-incrustantes são a Norman 23 da Marinha do Brasil, que estabelece as diretrizes para os sistemas anti-incrustantes, e a Resolução Conama 357, que estabelece os padrões de qualidade de águas. Esses dois documentos estão relacionados apenas ao uso do TBT, que foi banido em 2008. Em relação aos novos biocidas não existe nada neste aspecto, embora a Normam 23 tenha opção de incluir outros biocidas, caso necessário. O presente estudo tem por objetivo ... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The use of some kind of antifouling protection is mandatory for ships and submerged structures. This use has many advantages, such as time gains in trips and general operations due to higher attainable speeds and reduced fuel consumption, as biofouling increases hull roughness and reduces hydrodynamic performance of the vessel. In a general way, most of these paints include biocides, to avoid the organism fixation in the vessel’s hull surface. However, these biocides cause environmental problems such as imposex, which causes masculinization of female marine gastropods, an endocrine disruption problem caused by tributyltin (TBT). New biocides were introduced in the global market after the TBT banning as less harmfull alternatives, but many studies have shown that these also could cause damage to marine ecosystems, and particularly when combined. In Brazil, environmental regulations on antifouling paints are: Normam 23, from the Brazilian Navy, which regulates application of marine antifouling systems, and Resolution 357 from CONAMA (Brazilian National Environment Council), which establish the water quality parameters. Both documents include only organotins (Normam 23) or specifically TBT (Res. 357), forbidden as antifouling since 2008. The new antifouling biocides are not discussed or regulated in these regulatory instances, while Normam 23 have the possibility of upgrade for including other biocides if required. This study is aimed at an evaluation of the possible risks to ma... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

Mechanical parameter characterization of very thin polymer films using digital im- age correlation is performed in this work. At present days DIC is widely used in the construction, food industries, and aviation. Despite advantages when compared to other conventional methods, but users still face difficulties with the analysis of thin polymers like low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) thin polymer films. For the application of sprays to obtain the best pattern quality as well as the potential of thin-film material properties tempering from the stochastic pattern paint. This research work will investigate the effect of several spray paints on the material response of thin polymer film. It also shows how to achieve good surface traction, time effect, and the type of spray to be used for DIC analysis. Finally, this research also studies how the width of the specimen affects the wrinkling effect, which is a common phenomenon while testing the thin polymer films and exhibits the appropriate width for reducing wrinkles on thin polymer films.

This licentiate study was initiated by copper, zinc and galvanized steel producers in Europe, who felt a need to assess runoff rates of copper and zinc from the pure metals and commercial products at marine exposure conditions. Their motive was the increasing concern in various European countries and the on-going risk assessments of copper and zinc within the European commission. Also the circumstance that available runoff rates so far, had been reported for mainly urban exposure conditions, rather than marine. A collaboration was therefore established with the French Corrosion Institute, which runs a marine test site in Brest, and a set of vital questions were formulated. Their answers are the essence of this licentiate study. Based on the ISO corrosivity classification and one-year exposures, the marine atmosphere of Brest is fairly corrosive for zinc (class C3) and highly corrosive for copper (C4). Despite higher corrosivity classifications for both metals in Brest compared to the urban site of Stockholm, used as a reference site, nearly all runoff rates assessed for copper, zinc and their commercial products were lower in Brest compared to Stockholm. This was attributed to a higher surface wetting in Brest and concomitant higher removal rate of deposited chloride and sulphate species from the marine-exposed surfaces. The comparison shows that measured corrosion rates cannot be used to predict runoff rates, since different physicochemical processes govern corrosion and runoff respectively. For copper, the runoff rate in Brest was approximately 1.1 g m-2 yr-1 with cuprite (Cu2O) as main patina constituent. During periods of very high chloride and sulphate deposition, paratacamite (Cu2Cl(OH)3) formed which increased the runoff rate to 1.5 g m-2 yr-1. For zinc, with hydrozincite (Zn5(CO3)2(OH)6) as the main patina constituent, the runoff rate was relatively stable at 2.6 g m-2 yr-1 throughout the year, despite episodes of heavy chloride and sulphate deposition. The application of organic coatings of varying thickness on artificially patinated copper or on different zinc-based products resulted in improved barrier properties and reduced runoff rates that seem highly dependent on thickness. The thickest organic coating (150 µm thick), applied on hot dipped galvanized steel, reduced the runoff rate by a factor of 100. No deterioration of organic coatings was observed during the one-year exposures. Alloying zinc-based products with aluminium resulted in surface areas enriched in aluminium and concomitant reduced zinc runoff rates. The release rate and bioavailability of copper from different anti-fouling paints into artificial seawater was also investigated. It turned out that the release rate not only depends on the copper concentration in the paint, but also on paint matrix properties and other released metal constituents detected. Far from all copper was bioavailabe at the immediate release situation. In all, the results suggest the importance of assessing the ecotoxic response of anti-fouling paints not only by regarding the copper release, but rather through an integrated effect of all matrix constituents. / QC 20101126

Neste trabalho são apresentados os resultados da determinação, por ICP OES, de elementos tóxicos e/ou potencialmente tóxicos (AI, Cr, Ni, Cu, Cd, As, Co e Pb) em tintas de acabamento imobiliário à base de água ou de solvente orgânico. Foram desenvolvidas e comparadas método de digestão de amostras utilizando diferentes misturas ácidas em bombas de decomposição, em fomo de microondas (sistema com radiação focalizada e com cavidade) e método de cinzas. O Método de digestão utilizando fomo de microondas com cavidade permitiu solubilização rápida e eficiente de todos os tipos de tintas testados, em tempo inferior a 35 minutos. As método apresentaram valores aceitáveis para a maioria dos elementos nos testes de adição e recuperação dos analitos. Os resíduos resultantes da digestão foram avaliados por MEV-EDS e não apresentaram os elementos estudados, comprovando a eficiência da metodologia. Mercúrio foi determinado usando um Analisador Direto de Mercúrio (DMA) e apresentou valores entre 43,0 ± 4,5 e 188 ± 9 µg Kg-1, valor considerado baixo quando comparado ao limite de 100 mg Kg-1, estabelecido na norma NRR 10004 para disposição de resíduos sólidos sem instalações especiais. O estudo da migração dos elementos para o ambiente após a exposição da tinta a agentes \"agressores\" , como raios ultravioletas e umidade, foi realizado usando câmara do tipo \"Weather-Ometer\" (envelhecimento acelerado). A avaliação dos resultados foi feita por MEV EDS e ICP OES. As micrografias de MEV mostraram que houve mudança na morfologia do polímero que foi submetido ao intemperismo acelerado. Os resultados obtidos não foram conclusivos quanto à migração dos analitos em função da baixa razão entre as massas degradada e não degradada das amostras. Uma proposta de metodologia para a avaliação por ICP OES das tintas e da disponibilidade de elementos tóxicos e potencialmente tóxicos, baseada na lixiviação de amostras secas em ambiente controlado é apresentada. São mostrados resultados de lixiviação de AI, Cr, Ni, Cu, Cd, As, Co e Pb com vários extratores e tempos diferentes de extração. Os resultados mostram que ocorre a migração de alguns elementos para as soluções estudadas e que, dos extratores avaliados, a chuva ácida apresentou maior potencial de lixiviação. / This work presents the results of the determination, using ICP OES, of the toxic and/or potentially toxic elements (AI, Cr, Ni, Cu, Cd, As, Co and Pb) in paints based in water or organic solvent. Sample digestion method were developed and compared using different acid mixtures in decomposition pumps, in microwave oven (focused and with cavity) and ash method. The digestion method using microwave oven with cavity allowed fast and efficient solubilization of ali tested types of paints, in inferior time to 35 mino The methodologies showed acceptable values for the majority of the elements using addition and recovery tests. The residues resulting of the digestion were analyzed by SEM-EDS and did not present the studied elements, checking the efficiency of the method. Mercury was determined using a Direct Mercury Analyzer (DMA) presenting values between 43.0 ± 4.5 and 188 ± 9 µg.kg-1, value considered low when compared to the Iimit of 100 mg.kg-1, established in the norm NBR 10004 for disposition of solid residues without special installations. The migration of the elements for the environment was studied afier the exposition of the paints to aggressor agents, Iike ultraviolet radiation and humidity, using a Weather-Ometer type chamber (accelerated aging). The evaluation of the results was performed by SEM-EDS and ICP-OES. The SEM micrographs showed changes on the polymer morphologies submitted to accelerated aging. The obtained results were not conclusive on the migration of elements because of the low mass ratio between the degraded and non-degraded samples. The proposed method for the evaluation by ICP-OES of paints and the disponibility of toxic and potentially toxic elements, based on the lixiviation of dry samples in controlled environment is described. Lixiviation results of AI, Cr, Ni, Cu, Cd, As, Co and Pb using several different removal agents and extraction times are presented. The results show that happens the migration of some elements for the studied solutions and that, among ali removal agents, the acid rain showed the highest lixiviation potential. that, among ali removal agents, the acid rain showed the highest lixiviation potential.

The interaction of a shock wave with a boundary layer is a classic viscous/inviscid interaction problem that occurs over a wide range of high speed aerodynamic flows. For example, on transonic wings, in supersonic air intakes, in propelling nozzles at offdesign conditions and on deflected controls at supersonic/transonic speeds, to name a few. The transonic interaction takes place at Mach numbers typically between 1.1 and 1.5. On an aerofoil, its existence can cause problems that range from a mild increase in section drag to flow separation and buffeting. In the absence of separation the drag increase is predominantly due to wave drag, caused by a rise in entropy through the interaction. The control of the turbulent interaction as applied to a transonic aerofoil is addressed in this thesis. However, the work can equally be applied to the control of interaction for numerous other occurrences where a shock meets a turbulent boundary layer. It is assumed that, for both swept normal shock and unswept normal shock interactions, as long as the Mach number normal to the shock is the same, then the interaction, and therefore its control, should be the same. Numerous schemes have been suggested to control such interaction. However, they have generally been marred by the drag reduction obtained being negated by the additional drag due to the power requirements, for example the pumping power in the case of mass transfer and the drag of the devices in the case of vortex generators. A system of piezoelectrically controlled flaps is presented for the control of the interaction. The flaps would aeroelastically deflect due to the pressure difference created by the pressure rise across the shock and by piezoelectrically induced strains. The amount of deflection, and hence the mass flow through the plenum chamber, would control the interaction. It is proposed that the flaps will delay separation of the boundary layer whilst reducing wave drag and overcome the disadvantages of previous control methods. Active control can be utilised to optimise the effects of the boundary layer shock wave interaction as it would allow the ability to control the position of the control region around the original shock position, mass transfer rate and distribution. A number of design options were considered for the integration of the piezoelectric ceramic into the flap structure. These included the use of unimorphs, bimorphs and polymorphs, with the latter capable of being directly employed as the flap. Unimorphs, with an aluminium substrate, produce less deflection than bimorphs and multimorphs. However, they can withstand and overcome the pressure loads associated with SBLI control. For the current experiments, it was found that near optimal control of the swept and unswept shock wave boundary layer interactions was attained with flap deflections between 1mm and 3mm. However, to obtain the deflection required for optimal performance in a full scale situation, a more powerful piezoelectric actuator material is required than currently available. A theoretical model is developed to predict the effect of unimorph flap deflection on the displacement thickness growth angles, the leading shock angle and the triple point height. It is shown that optimal deflection for SBLI control is a trade-off between reducing the total pressure losses, which is implied with increasing the triple point height, and minimising the frictional losses.