帕金森氏症 (Parkinson’s disease，PD) 為目前最普遍的神經退化性疾病之一，該病因主要是由於中腦黑質區的多巴胺細胞的死亡造成運動系統的失能。環境常用農藥百草枯 (Paraquat，PQ) 目前已知是導致帕金森氏症的環境因子之一。它主要作用在粒線體上，阻斷粒線體的功能、造成大量氧化自由基生成、並誘導細胞凋亡的發生。沉默調節因子蛋白Sirtuin家族 (Sirtuin Family，Sirt1-Sirt7) 是一群 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) 依賴性去乙醯化酶，具有抗老化、以及預防神經退化性疾病等能力。SRT1720是根據天然植物酚類白藜蘆醇製造出來的化學衍生物，具有活化Sirtuin的能力。先前研究也顯示SRT1720具有增加糖尿病小鼠的存活率、抗腫瘤、抗發炎等功能，但SRT1720對於神經退化性疾病的保護性並不清楚。為了解SRT1720是否具有對抗PQ的細胞毒性，用以評估SRT1720是否具有治療帕金森氏症的潛力，本研究使用人類神經瘤母細胞株 (SH-SY5Y) 作為帕金森氏症的離體外實驗模式，來探討SRT1720及PQ對於細胞的作用及影響。實驗結果顯示，PQ造成細胞存活率呈劑量反應地下降，而SRT1720可以回復因PQ所造成細胞存活率的下降、細胞凋亡的產生、粒線體的型態變化，以及降低氧化自由基的生成等。這證明SRT1720對細胞具有神經保護的效果。本研究也利用西方點墨法證實了當細胞暴露在PQ下，SRT1720會回復因PQ所導致Sirt1-Sirt7蛋白含量的下降。其中，大量表現Sirt1可以對抗PQ造成細胞的死亡。本研究也發現SRT1720可回復PQ自噬小體在細胞中的堆積情形，利用西方點墨法觀察SRT1720可以回復LC3-I/II的蛋白質再細胞間的堆積。此外，在對於20週大的C57BL/6小鼠注射PQ (10 mg/kg) 及SRT1720 (0.1mg/kg或1 mg/kg)，並利用滾輪及獨木橋試驗觀察其運動行為。結果顯示，SRT1720可以回復PQ所造成運動能力上的下降，並且減緩PQ所造成中腦區多巴胺神經元的傷害。綜觀以上結果，在細胞暴露在PQ時，SRT1720或許可以經由保護粒線體功能，使ROS生成量達到回復及降低細胞凋亡的發生。同時SRT1720也能保持自噬作用的平衡，降低自噬小體在細胞中的堆積。這些機轉也許與SRT1720可以保護多巴胺神經元有關。另一方面，由於Peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor-coactivator 1α (PGC-1α) 與粒線體的生合成與神經保護有關，本實驗也發現SRT1720可改變PGC-1α去乙醯化的程度，但SRT1720對於Sirtuin蛋白以及Sirt1下游PGC-1α的活化與否還需做進一步的調查及研究。此研究顯示SRT1720對於保護細胞免於受到PQ所引發氧化壓力以及粒線體損傷之神經退化模型提供了一個具有潛力的治療方法。 / Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative disorder and mainly affecting the motor system because of the dopamine neuronal death in the substantia nigra. The exposure to environmental neurotoxin paraquat (PQ) is a widely used herbicide. It induces the increase of ROS stress, leads to mitochondrial dysfunction, and results in apoptotic cell death. Epidemiologically, it could be the risk for PD incidence. Mammalian silent information regulator 2 Sirtuin Family (Sirt1-Sirt7) is a NAD+ dependent deacetylase enzyme and it protects against such as anti-aging and neurodegenerative disease. SRT1720 which derives from resveratrol is able to activate Sirt1. SRT1720 has been reported to improve survival in obese mice, anti-tumor, and anti-inflammatory, but the effect in the neurodegenerative disease it still unknown. We thus proposed if SRT1720 could have neuron- protective effect in PQ-induced toxicity. We used SH-SY5Y cell to evaluate the effect of SRT1720 and PQ. First, we confirmed that PQ could dose- and time-dependently decrease SH-SY5Y cell viability, increase ROS formation, and induce mitochondrial dysfunction. However, SRT1720 pretreatment improved cell viability, decreased apoptosis and ROS formation, and prevented mitochondrial dysfunction in PQ-treated SH-SY5Y cells. By Western blot analysis, SRT1720 pretreatment could preserve Sirt1-Sirt7 protein contents during PQ intoxication. In autophagy studies, we also found that SRT1720 could reduce PQ-induce autophagic vacuoles accumulation. Furthermore, we also found that intraperitoneally injection of 10 mg/kg PQ once a week in mice can decrease the level of motor activity after 6 weeks treatment. However, SRT1720 (0.1 mg/kg or 1mg/kg) treatment, reversed PQ- induced motor defect. Taken together, SRT1720 could protect mitochondrial function and improve cell survival during PQ intoxication. This work provided a promising therapeutic way for treating aging-related neurodegenerations, such as PD.

L’adaptation de l’organisme à son environnement est essentielle à sa survie. L’homéostasie énergétique permet l’équilibre entre les apports, les dépenses et le stockage d’énergie. Un surplus calorique important dérègle ce processus et mène au développement du syndrome métabolique caractérisé, entre autres, par une obésité, un diabète de type II, des maladies cardiovasculaires et des dyslipidémies. La ghréline participe au maintien de l’équilibre énergétique durant le jeûne en stimulant la production de glucose par le foie et le stockage lipidique dans le tissu adipeux. Le coactivateur transcriptionnel PGC-1alpha, surexprimé en situation de jeûne, est impliqué dans l’induction de la production de glucose par le foie et l’oxydation des acides gras. Notre hypothèse est que ces deux acteurs clés du métabolisme énergétique constituent un axe de régulation commun. Dans cette étude, nous montrons que la ghréline participe à la régulation de PGC-1alpha. Son récepteur GHS-R1a, possédant une forte activité constitutive, est également impliqué de façon indépendante au ligand. GHS-R1a réduit l’activité transcriptionnelle de PGC-1alpha tandis que l’ajout du ligand inverse modérément cette action. L’effet de GHS-R1a corrèle avec l’acétylation de PGC-1alpha qui est fortement augmentée de façon dose-dépendante. La stabilité de PGC-1alpha est également augmentée par le GHS-R1a indépendamment de l’ubiquitine. La ghréline diminue la capacité de PGC-1alpha à lier PPARbeta, un récepteur nucléaire partenaire de PGC-1alpha. De plus, la ghréline réduit, de façon ligand-dépendante, la capacité de coactivation de PGC-1alpha sur PPARbeta dans les hépatocytes. L’ensemble de ces résultats identifie PGC-1alpha comme cible du signal de la ghréline et suggère un axe de régulation ghréline/PGC-1alpha/PPARbeta.Une meilleure compréhension de cet axe de régulation va permettre la mise en évidence de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques pour faire face aux pathologies associées au syndrome métabolique. / The adaptation of an organism to its environment is essential to its survival. Energy homeostasis is defined as the balance between intakes, expenses and storage of energy. An excess of calories disrupts this process and leads to the development of the metabolic syndrome that is characterized by obesity, type II diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and dyslipidemia. During fasting, ghrelin participates in the maintenance of energy balance by stimulating hepatic production of glucose and lipid storage in adipose tissue. The transcriptional coactivator PGC-1alpha is overexpressed in the liver during fasting and is involves in the induction of the hepatic glucose production and fatty acid oxidation. Our hypothesis is that these two key performers in the energy metabolism constitute a common axis control. In this study, we show that ghrelin plays a role in the regulation of PGC-1alpha. The ghrelin receptor GHS-R1a is also involved because of its strong constitutive activity in absence of ligand. We found that GHS-R1a inhibited PGC-1alpha transcriptional activity whereas adding ghrelin to cells moderated this effect. PGC-1alpha activation by GHS-R1a correlated with a dose-dependent increase of PGC-1alpha acetylation. The stability of PGC-1alpha was also increased by ghrelin receptor in a manner involving the ubiquitin-independent proteasome pathway. Ghrelin decreased the ability of PGC-1alpha to bind to PPARbeta, one of its nuclear receptor partners. Furthermore, ghrelin decreased the ability of PGC-1alpha to coactivate PPARbeta in a ligand-dependent manner in hepatocytes. Together, these results identify PGC-1alpha as a metabolic target of GHSR-1a signaling and defines a new regulatory axis involving ghrelin/PGC-1alpha/PPARbeta in hepatocytes. A better understanding of this regulation axis will provide novel aspects in therapeutic targeting of diseases associated with the metabolic syndrome.

Sirt3, une des sept sirtuines chez les mammifères, est une déacétylase mitochondriale NAD+-dépendante qui joue un rôle dans le contrôle des facteurs clés de plusieurs voies métaboliques. Sirt3 déacétyle et active un grand nombre d'enzymes mitochondriales impliquées dans l'activité de la chaîne respiratoire, la production d'ATP, le cycle de Krebs, ainsi que le cycle de l'urée. Parallèlement à son rôle dans le métabolisme énergétique, l'activité mitochondriale intervient également dans l'induction de l'apoptose ainsi que dans la régulation de la prolifération et la différenciation cellulaires. En particulier les travaux du laboratoire ont montré qu'il existe une véritable régulation de la différenciation myogénique par l'activité mitochondriale. Comme Sirt3 régule l'activité mitochondriale, nous nous sommes intéressés à étudier l'implication de cette sirtuine dans la différenciation des myoblastes. Dans une première partie, nous avons évalué l'expression endogène de Sirt3 au cours de la différenciation des myoblastes murins C2C12, puis étudié l'effet de son inhibition sur le processus de différenciation et sur l'activité mitochondriale. Nous avons montré que l'expression de Sirt3 endogène augmente après induction de la différenciation des C2C12. Une inhibition stable de l'expression de Sirt3 par interférence (Short hairpin Sirt3, shSirt3) entraîne : 1) un blocage de la différenciation terminale des C2C12 reflété par une chute significative de l'index de fusion ainsi que de l'expression des marqueurs myogéniques MyoD, Myogénine et troponine T ; 2) une diminution de l'activité mitochondriale reflétée par une altération de l'expression de PGC-1alpha, VDAC et citrate synthase, et une diminution des activités enzymatiques des complexes de la chaîne respiratoire et de la respiration maximale des myoblastes ; 3) une augmentation de la production de DROs. Ces résultats suggèrent un rôle important de Sirt3 dans la différenciation des myoblastes, en relation avec son influence sur l'activité mitochondriale.Dans une seconde partie, nous avons évalué l'importance de Sirt3 in vivo sur le développement et le métabolisme du tissu musculaire en étudiant le phénotype de souris surexprimant l'isoforme courte (MCK-SIRT3M3) ou l'isoforme longue (MCK-SIRT3M1) de Sirt3 spécifiquement dans le muscle squelettique. Nos premiers résultats obtenus à l'âge de 3 mois montrent que la capacité oxydative des souris MCK-SIRT3M1 est plus faible et celle des souris MCK-SIRT3M3 plus élevée par rapport aux souris sauvages. Les souris MCK-SIRT3M3 présentent une atrophie musculaire dès l'âge de trois mois alors que la capacité musculaire et l'activité mitochondriale dans les muscles de ces souris ne sont pas modifiées. Avec l'âge, le phénotype des souris surexprimant l'isoforme M3 dans le muscle est plus marqué : l'atrophie s'accentue, le nombre de mitochondries augmente, et l'expression de la myosine de type 1 augmente alors que l'expression des myosines de type II diminue. Ces données indiquent que l'isoforme courte de Sirt 3 aurait une influence dans le développement et le métabolisme du muscle squelettique de souris. / Sirt3, one of the seven mammalian sirtuins, is a mitochondrial nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)-dependent deacetylase, and has been shown to control multiple key metabolic pathways. Sirt3 deacetylates and activates a large number of mitochondrial enzymes implicated in the activity of respiratory chain and ATP production, TCA and Urea cycles. We have previously shown that mitochondrial activity is importantly involved in the regulation of myoblast differentiation. Since Sirt3 modulates mitochondrial activity, we have investigated its influence on myoblast differentiation. First, we have evaluated endogen Sirt3 expression during C2C12 myoblast differentiation and then we examined the effect of its inhibition on the differentiation processes and on mitochondrial activity. We have shown that Sirt3 protein expression increased after the induction of myoblast differentiation. A stable inhibition of Sirt3 expression, using short hairpin Sirt3 (shSirt3) in C2C12 myoblasts resulted in: 1) abrogation of terminal differentiation reflected by a sharp decrease of the fusion index and a significant decrease of Myogenin, MyoD and Troponin T protein expression; 2) a decrease in mitochondrial activity reflected by alterations in PGC1-alpha, VDAC and citrate synthase expression, and a decrease in respiratory chain complexes activity and myoblast maximal respiration, 3) an increase in ROS production. These data suggest that Sirt3 plays an important role in the regulation of myoblast differentiation through its influence on mitochondrial activity.In a second part, to investigate the role of Sirt3, in vivo, in myogenesis and in mitochondrial activity, we have studied the effect of Sirt3 isoforms (short and long, MCK-SIRT3M3 and MCK-SIRT3M1 respectively) overexpression exclusively in skeletal muscle tissue of transgenic mice. We show that basal metabolism is lower MCK-SIRT3M1 mice and higher in MCK-SIRT3M3 compared to WT mice at 3 months of age. In 3 month-old MCK-SIRT3M3 mice, skeletal muscle is atrophied while muscle capacity and mitochondrial activity are not altered. Skeletal muscle phenotype evolves with age, in MCK-SIRT3M3 mice : increase in muscle atrophy, mitochondrial content. These data suggest that Sirt3 short isoform plays an important role in skeletal muscle development and metabolism in mice.

As doenças cardiovasculares representam a maior causa de mortalidade a nível mundial. Desde o conhecimento da importância da mitocôndria no metabolismo do cardiomiócito, alterações no funcionamento desta organela têm sido associadas a um dos principais causadores do infarto do miocárdio e consequente morte celular. O cofator de transcrição PGC-1alfa tem sido alvo de diversos estudos relacionados com o metabolismo celular devido à sua forte participação na biogênese mitocondrial. Considerando a limitação de material biológico para o estudo de doenças cardíacas, muito se tem investido no estudo de células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas (iPSCs). Esta tese teve como principal objetivo a avaliação dos efeitos da variação da expressão de PGC-1alfa em iPSCs e na sua diferenciação em cardiomiócitos. Após estabelecimento de um protocolo de reprogramação celular, em que ocorre geração de iPSCs a partir de fibroblastos humanos, induzimos a inibição da expressão de PGC-1alfa em 50% e 70% pelo uso de vetores lentivirais, e analisamos o estado de pluripotência através da avaliação de expressão genica e proteica dos principais marcadores - SSEA4, TRA-1-60, OCT4, NANOG, SOX2, REX1, TRA-1-81. Não observamos diferenças significativas no conteúdo destes marcadores entre os clones de iPSC controle e inibidos. Estabelecemos um protocolo de diferenciação de iPSCs em cardiomiócitos com elevada taxa de reprodutibilidade, através da adaptação de protocolos descritos na literatura, e submetemos estas iPSCs à diferenciação. As células geradas pela diferenciação do clone controle apresentaram características típicas de cardiomiócito: contratilidade e alta expressão molecular de troponina T e troponina I. Em contraste, as células com 70% de inibição de PGC-1alfa se mostraram incapazes de contrair e com baixa expressão de troponina. Através de uma análise dos níveis de expressão genica e proteica de diversos marcadores expressos durante o processo de diferenciação (T, NKX2.5, MIXL1, MYL7, ISL1), observamos que o clone com maior inibição de PGC-1alfa apresentou sempre níveis de expressão diminuídos em relação aos clones controle. Em conclusão, podemos afirmar que o PGC-1alfa não interfere com as características de auto-renovação e pluripotência das iPSCs mas possui um papel essencial na diferenciação de células-tronco pluriotentes induzidas em cardiomiócitos. Os resultados obtidos contribuem para informações preliminares acerca do desenvolvimento de iPSCs com inibição da expressão de PGC-1alfa durante a diferenciação cardíaca, mas estudos relativos ao potencial papel deste cofator durante o desenvolvimento cardíaco in vivo ainda precisam ser aprofundados, utilizando outros modelos de estudo / Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Since the knowledge of the importance of mitochondria in the cardiomyocyte metabolism, changes in the functioning of this organelle has been associated with one of the main causes of myocardial infarction and subsequent cell death. The transcriptional cofactor PGC-1alpha has been subjected to several studies related to cell metabolism due to its strong involvement in mitochondrial biogenesis. Considering the limitations of biological material in the study of heart disease, there has been a lot of investment in the study of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). The main objective of this thesis was to evaluate the effects of the variation in expression of PGC-1alpha in iPSCs and it\'s differentiation in cardiomyocytes. After the estabilshment of a cellular reprogramming protocol, where iPSCs is generated from human fibroblasts, the expression of PGC-1alpha was induced by 50% and 70% with the use of lentiviral vectors and the state of pluripotency was determined by analyzing the gene and protein expression of the main markers - SSEA4, TRA- 1-60, OCT4, NANOG, SOX2, REX1, TRA- 1- 81. There were no significant differences observed in the content of these markers between the iPSC clones control and inhibited. A protocol for the differentiation of iPSCs into cardyomyocites was established with a high reproducibility rate, by adapting existing protocols in the general literature, submiting these iPSCs into diferentiation. The cells generated from the differentiation of the control clone showed typical characteristis of cardiomyocytes: contractility and high molecular expression of troponin T and troponin I. In contrast, the cells with 70% inhibition PGC-1alpha were unable to contract and had low troponin expression. Through an analysis of gene expression and protein levels of several markers expressed during the differentiation process (T, Nkx2.5, MIXL1, MYL7, ISL1), the clone with greater inhibition of PGC-1alpha always showed decreased expression levels compared to control clones. In conclusion, we can say that the PGC-1alpha does not interfere with the characteristics of self-renewal and pluripotency of iPSCs but has an essential role in the differentiation of pluripotent stem cells induced into cardiomyocytes. These results were obtained thanks an original approche based on iPSC technology enabling genetic modifications of the cells and controled differentiation into cardiomyocytes, but the potential role of PGC-1alpha on in vivo cardiac development or cardiomyocytes maturation remaisn to be evaluated using other models

As doenças cardiovasculares representam a maior causa de mortalidade a nível mundial. Desde o conhecimento da importância da mitocôndria no metabolismo do cardiomiócito, alterações no funcionamento desta organela têm sido associadas a um dos principais causadores do infarto do miocárdio e consequente morte celular. O cofator de transcrição PGC-1alfa tem sido alvo de diversos estudos relacionados com o metabolismo celular devido à sua forte participação na biogênese mitocondrial. Considerando a limitação de material biológico para o estudo de doenças cardíacas, muito se tem investido no estudo de células-tronco pluripotentes induzidas (iPSCs). Esta tese teve como principal objetivo a avaliação dos efeitos da variação da expressão de PGC-1alfa em iPSCs e na sua diferenciação em cardiomiócitos. Após estabelecimento de um protocolo de reprogramação celular, em que ocorre geração de iPSCs a partir de fibroblastos humanos, induzimos a inibição da expressão de PGC-1alfa em 50% e 70% pelo uso de vetores lentivirais, e analisamos o estado de pluripotência através da avaliação de expressão genica e proteica dos principais marcadores - SSEA4, TRA-1-60, OCT4, NANOG, SOX2, REX1, TRA-1-81. Não observamos diferenças significativas no conteúdo destes marcadores entre os clones de iPSC controle e inibidos. Estabelecemos um protocolo de diferenciação de iPSCs em cardiomiócitos com elevada taxa de reprodutibilidade, através da adaptação de protocolos descritos na literatura, e submetemos estas iPSCs à diferenciação. As células geradas pela diferenciação do clone controle apresentaram características típicas de cardiomiócito: contratilidade e alta expressão molecular de troponina T e troponina I. Em contraste, as células com 70% de inibição de PGC-1alfa se mostraram incapazes de contrair e com baixa expressão de troponina. Através de uma análise dos níveis de expressão genica e proteica de diversos marcadores expressos durante o processo de diferenciação (T, NKX2.5, MIXL1, MYL7, ISL1), observamos que o clone com maior inibição de PGC-1alfa apresentou sempre níveis de expressão diminuídos em relação aos clones controle. Em conclusão, podemos afirmar que o PGC-1alfa não interfere com as características de auto-renovação e pluripotência das iPSCs mas possui um papel essencial na diferenciação de células-tronco pluriotentes induzidas em cardiomiócitos. Os resultados obtidos contribuem para informações preliminares acerca do desenvolvimento de iPSCs com inibição da expressão de PGC-1alfa durante a diferenciação cardíaca, mas estudos relativos ao potencial papel deste cofator durante o desenvolvimento cardíaco in vivo ainda precisam ser aprofundados, utilizando outros modelos de estudo / Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Since the knowledge of the importance of mitochondria in the cardiomyocyte metabolism, changes in the functioning of this organelle has been associated with one of the main causes of myocardial infarction and subsequent cell death. The transcriptional cofactor PGC-1alpha has been subjected to several studies related to cell metabolism due to its strong involvement in mitochondrial biogenesis. Considering the limitations of biological material in the study of heart disease, there has been a lot of investment in the study of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). The main objective of this thesis was to evaluate the effects of the variation in expression of PGC-1alpha in iPSCs and it\'s differentiation in cardiomyocytes. After the estabilshment of a cellular reprogramming protocol, where iPSCs is generated from human fibroblasts, the expression of PGC-1alpha was induced by 50% and 70% with the use of lentiviral vectors and the state of pluripotency was determined by analyzing the gene and protein expression of the main markers - SSEA4, TRA- 1-60, OCT4, NANOG, SOX2, REX1, TRA- 1- 81. There were no significant differences observed in the content of these markers between the iPSC clones control and inhibited. A protocol for the differentiation of iPSCs into cardyomyocites was established with a high reproducibility rate, by adapting existing protocols in the general literature, submiting these iPSCs into diferentiation. The cells generated from the differentiation of the control clone showed typical characteristis of cardiomyocytes: contractility and high molecular expression of troponin T and troponin I. In contrast, the cells with 70% inhibition PGC-1alpha were unable to contract and had low troponin expression. Through an analysis of gene expression and protein levels of several markers expressed during the differentiation process (T, Nkx2.5, MIXL1, MYL7, ISL1), the clone with greater inhibition of PGC-1alpha always showed decreased expression levels compared to control clones. In conclusion, we can say that the PGC-1alpha does not interfere with the characteristics of self-renewal and pluripotency of iPSCs but has an essential role in the differentiation of pluripotent stem cells induced into cardiomyocytes. These results were obtained thanks an original approche based on iPSC technology enabling genetic modifications of the cells and controled differentiation into cardiomyocytes, but the potential role of PGC-1alpha on in vivo cardiac development or cardiomyocytes maturation remaisn to be evaluated using other models

INTRODUÇÃO: A Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptor- - Coactivator 1 ( PGC-1 e ) é proteína responsável pela conexão entre estímulos ambientais e resposta metabólica celular. Sua presença é importante em tecidos adiposo, hepático e muscular esquelético e, em animais, em tecido adiposo marrom. Interage com receptores nucleares modulando a biogênese mitocondrial e mantendo o equilíbrio termo energético celular com o meio ambiente. A redução da expressão de PGC-1 e da oxidação fosforilativa tem sido associada à resistência à insulina em doenças como Diabetes Mellitus tipo 2 e Síndrome Metabólica. OBJETIVOS: Avaliar o efeito do exercício na expressão da PGC-1 em tecidos alvos da insulina, como o fígado e músculos esquléticos soleus ( SOL ) e plantaris ( PLA ) de ratos machos Wistar e correlacioná-lo com a sensibilidade à insulina. METODOLOGIA: Ratos machos Wistar 190±15 g, n = 24, randomizados em 2 grupos: Ex ( exercício físico ) e Sd ( sedentário ) colocados respectivamente, em roda de atividade ou gaiolas comuns durante cinco semanas. Ao final do período, após jejum de quatro horas, foi colhido sangue para dosagens de glicose ( GLI ), insulina ( INS ) e ácidos graxos livres ( AGL ) e, em seguida, foram submetidos ao Teste de Supressão da Glicose e Insulina Endógenas com infusão durante 180 minutos de solução GLI ( 20mg/kg/min ) + INS ( 5 mU/kg/min ); amostras de sangue foram colhidas aos 140, 150, 160, 170 e 180 minutos. Terminado o teste e ainda sob anestesia, foram retirados os tecidos: fígado ( FG ) e músculos esquléticos ( PLA e SOL ), os quais foram imediatamente congelados e mantidos a -70ºC para posteriores análises. A expressão da PGC-1 foi avaliada pelo Western Blot com anticorpo policlonal anti- PGC-1. Análise estatística por teste t Student não-pareado e nível de significância 5%. RESULTADOS: Os dados se referem à média e erro padrão médio dos valores individuais das amostras. A distância percorrida na última semana ( km/dia ) pelo grupo Ex foi eficaz ( 5,61 ± 0,67 ). Não houve diferença no peso ( g ) dos ratos entre os grupos Ex e Sd ( 355,85 ± 9,51 x 375,68 ± 5,30 ) NS. Os valores de GLI jejum ( mg/dl ) foram semelhantes entre os grupos ( 117,6 ± 3,7 x 122,4 ± 2,6 ) NS. Entretanto, INS e AGL foram menores no grupo Ex: INS ( ng/ml ) ( 0,68 ± 0,12 x 1,45 ± 0,14 ) p < 0,001 e AGL ( mEq/L ) ( 1,12 ± 0,11 x 1,60 ± 0,11 ) p < 0,006. Durante o teste de supressão, os valores de GLI e INS na fase de estabilidade foram semelhantes entre grupos ( expressos em área sob a curva ): AUC GLI ( mg/dl/min ) ( 2,77 ± 0,12 x 2,95 ± 0,07 ) NS; AUC INS ( ng/ml/min ) ( 0,81 ± 0,15 x 0,99 ± 0,09 ) NS. A expressão da PGC-1 foi maior no PLA de ratos do grupo Ex e, em FG e SOL foi semelhante entre os grupos. CONCLUSÃO: O exercício físico durante 5 semanas em roda de atividade voluntária, aumentou a sensibilidade à insulina e a oxidação de ácidos graxos livres no jejum. A melhora da sensibilidade à insulina esteve associada à maior expressão da PGC-1 somente em músculo PLA. Estes dados sugerem que o aumento da sensibilidade à insulina no jejum não se relacionou com o aumento da expressão da PGC-1 em outros tecidos alvos da ação insulínica, como FG e SOL, neste modelo de estudo. / INTRODUCTION: The Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor- - Coactivator 1 ( PGC-1 e ) is a protein responsible for the connection between environmental stimuli and cell metabolic response. Its presence is important in fat tissue, hepatic and skeletal muscle and in animals on brown fat tissue. Interact with nuclear receptors modulating the mitochondrial biogenesis and maintain thermal energy balance with the environment. Diminished of PGC-1 expression and oxidative phophorylation has been associated to insulin resistance in diseases like Type 2 Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effects of exercise on the PGC-1 expression in target tissues of insulin, such as liver and skeletal muscles soleus (SOL) and plantaris (PLA) of male Wistar rats and correlates with insulin sensitivity. METHODOLOGY: Male Wistar rats 190±15g, n = 24, divided randomly into 2 groups: Ex ( physical exercise ) and Sd ( sedentary ), respectively placed in a voluntary running wheel cage or a standard cage for five weeks. At the end of study, after fasting for 4 hours, blood was collected for measurements of glucose ( GLU ), insulin ( INS ) and free fatty acids ( FFA ) then the animals were submitted to Test of Suppression Endogenous Glucose and Insulin, with infusion during 180 minutes of solution GLU ( 20mg/kg/min ) + INS ( 5mU/kg/min ); blood samples was collected at 140, 150, 160, 170 and 180 minutes. Finished the test and still anesthetized, the tissues were removed: liver ( LIV ), skeletal muscle ( SOL and PLA ) that were immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at -70ºC until analysis. The PGC-1 expression was evaluated by Western Blotting with polyclonal antibody anti-PGC-1. Statistical analysis by unpaired Students t test with significance level 5%. RESULTS: the data refer to the mean and standard error of individual values. The distance covered per day during last week ( km / day ) by Ex group was efficient ( 5,61 ± 0,67 ). There was no difference in weight ( g ) of rats between Ex and Sd groups ( 355,85 ± 9,51 x 375,68 ± 5,30 ) NS. The values of fasting GLU were similar between groups ( mg/dl ) ( 117,6 ± 3,7 x 122,4 ± 2,6 ) NS. However INS and FFA were lower in group Ex: INS ( ng/ml ) ( 0,68 ± 0,12 x 1,45 ± 0,14 ) p < 0,001 and FFA ( mEq/L ) ( 1,12 ± 0,11 x 1,60 ± 0,11 ) p < 0,006. During the suppression test the values of GLU and INS on stability step were similar between groups ( expressed in area under curve ): AUC GlU ( mg/dl/min ) ( 2,77 ± 0,12 x 2,95 ± 0,07 ) NS; AUC INS ( ng/ml/min ) ( 0,81 ± 0,15 x 0,99 ± 0,09 ) NS. The PGC-1 expression was greater in PLA of rats Ex than Sd group, and there was no difference in LIV and SOL between groups. CONCLUSION: The physical exercise during five weeks in voluntary running wheel increased the insulin sensitivity and fasting free fatty acids oxidation. The improvement of insulin sensitivity was associated with higher PGC-1 expression on PLA muscle only. These data suggest that increasing insulin sensibility on fasting is not associated with increasing of the PGC-1 expression in others targets tissues of insulin action, such as LIV and SOL, in this study model.

L’adaptation de l’organisme à son environnement est essentielle à sa survie. L’homéostasie énergétique permet l’équilibre entre les apports, les dépenses et le stockage d’énergie. Un surplus calorique important dérègle ce processus et mène au développement du syndrome métabolique caractérisé, entre autres, par une obésité, un diabète de type II, des maladies cardiovasculaires et des dyslipidémies. La ghréline participe au maintien de l’équilibre énergétique durant le jeûne en stimulant la production de glucose par le foie et le stockage lipidique dans le tissu adipeux. Le coactivateur transcriptionnel PGC-1alpha, surexprimé en situation de jeûne, est impliqué dans l’induction de la production de glucose par le foie et l’oxydation des acides gras. Notre hypothèse est que ces deux acteurs clés du métabolisme énergétique constituent un axe de régulation commun. Dans cette étude, nous montrons que la ghréline participe à la régulation de PGC-1alpha. Son récepteur GHS-R1a, possédant une forte activité constitutive, est également impliqué de façon indépendante au ligand. GHS-R1a réduit l’activité transcriptionnelle de PGC-1alpha tandis que l’ajout du ligand inverse modérément cette action. L’effet de GHS-R1a corrèle avec l’acétylation de PGC-1alpha qui est fortement augmentée de façon dose-dépendante. La stabilité de PGC-1alpha est également augmentée par le GHS-R1a indépendamment de l’ubiquitine. La ghréline diminue la capacité de PGC-1alpha à lier PPARbeta, un récepteur nucléaire partenaire de PGC-1alpha. De plus, la ghréline réduit, de façon ligand-dépendante, la capacité de coactivation de PGC-1alpha sur PPARbeta dans les hépatocytes. L’ensemble de ces résultats identifie PGC-1alpha comme cible du signal de la ghréline et suggère un axe de régulation ghréline/PGC-1alpha/PPARbeta.Une meilleure compréhension de cet axe de régulation va permettre la mise en évidence de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques pour faire face aux pathologies associées au syndrome métabolique. / The adaptation of an organism to its environment is essential to its survival. Energy homeostasis is defined as the balance between intakes, expenses and storage of energy. An excess of calories disrupts this process and leads to the development of the metabolic syndrome that is characterized by obesity, type II diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and dyslipidemia. During fasting, ghrelin participates in the maintenance of energy balance by stimulating hepatic production of glucose and lipid storage in adipose tissue. The transcriptional coactivator PGC-1alpha is overexpressed in the liver during fasting and is involves in the induction of the hepatic glucose production and fatty acid oxidation. Our hypothesis is that these two key performers in the energy metabolism constitute a common axis control. In this study, we show that ghrelin plays a role in the regulation of PGC-1alpha. The ghrelin receptor GHS-R1a is also involved because of its strong constitutive activity in absence of ligand. We found that GHS-R1a inhibited PGC-1alpha transcriptional activity whereas adding ghrelin to cells moderated this effect. PGC-1alpha activation by GHS-R1a correlated with a dose-dependent increase of PGC-1alpha acetylation. The stability of PGC-1alpha was also increased by ghrelin receptor in a manner involving the ubiquitin-independent proteasome pathway. Ghrelin decreased the ability of PGC-1alpha to bind to PPARbeta, one of its nuclear receptor partners. Furthermore, ghrelin decreased the ability of PGC-1alpha to coactivate PPARbeta in a ligand-dependent manner in hepatocytes. Together, these results identify PGC-1alpha as a metabolic target of GHSR-1a signaling and defines a new regulatory axis involving ghrelin/PGC-1alpha/PPARbeta in hepatocytes. A better understanding of this regulation axis will provide novel aspects in therapeutic targeting of diseases associated with the metabolic syndrome.

INTRODUÇÃO: A Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptor- - Coactivator 1 ( PGC-1 e ) é proteína responsável pela conexão entre estímulos ambientais e resposta metabólica celular. Sua presença é importante em tecidos adiposo, hepático e muscular esquelético e, em animais, em tecido adiposo marrom. Interage com receptores nucleares modulando a biogênese mitocondrial e mantendo o equilíbrio termo energético celular com o meio ambiente. A redução da expressão de PGC-1 e da oxidação fosforilativa tem sido associada à resistência à insulina em doenças como Diabetes Mellitus tipo 2 e Síndrome Metabólica. OBJETIVOS: Avaliar o efeito do exercício na expressão da PGC-1 em tecidos alvos da insulina, como o fígado e músculos esquléticos soleus ( SOL ) e plantaris ( PLA ) de ratos machos Wistar e correlacioná-lo com a sensibilidade à insulina. METODOLOGIA: Ratos machos Wistar 190±15 g, n = 24, randomizados em 2 grupos: Ex ( exercício físico ) e Sd ( sedentário ) colocados respectivamente, em roda de atividade ou gaiolas comuns durante cinco semanas. Ao final do período, após jejum de quatro horas, foi colhido sangue para dosagens de glicose ( GLI ), insulina ( INS ) e ácidos graxos livres ( AGL ) e, em seguida, foram submetidos ao Teste de Supressão da Glicose e Insulina Endógenas com infusão durante 180 minutos de solução GLI ( 20mg/kg/min ) + INS ( 5 mU/kg/min ); amostras de sangue foram colhidas aos 140, 150, 160, 170 e 180 minutos. Terminado o teste e ainda sob anestesia, foram retirados os tecidos: fígado ( FG ) e músculos esquléticos ( PLA e SOL ), os quais foram imediatamente congelados e mantidos a -70ºC para posteriores análises. A expressão da PGC-1 foi avaliada pelo Western Blot com anticorpo policlonal anti- PGC-1. Análise estatística por teste t Student não-pareado e nível de significância 5%. RESULTADOS: Os dados se referem à média e erro padrão médio dos valores individuais das amostras. A distância percorrida na última semana ( km/dia ) pelo grupo Ex foi eficaz ( 5,61 ± 0,67 ). Não houve diferença no peso ( g ) dos ratos entre os grupos Ex e Sd ( 355,85 ± 9,51 x 375,68 ± 5,30 ) NS. Os valores de GLI jejum ( mg/dl ) foram semelhantes entre os grupos ( 117,6 ± 3,7 x 122,4 ± 2,6 ) NS. Entretanto, INS e AGL foram menores no grupo Ex: INS ( ng/ml ) ( 0,68 ± 0,12 x 1,45 ± 0,14 ) p < 0,001 e AGL ( mEq/L ) ( 1,12 ± 0,11 x 1,60 ± 0,11 ) p < 0,006. Durante o teste de supressão, os valores de GLI e INS na fase de estabilidade foram semelhantes entre grupos ( expressos em área sob a curva ): AUC GLI ( mg/dl/min ) ( 2,77 ± 0,12 x 2,95 ± 0,07 ) NS; AUC INS ( ng/ml/min ) ( 0,81 ± 0,15 x 0,99 ± 0,09 ) NS. A expressão da PGC-1 foi maior no PLA de ratos do grupo Ex e, em FG e SOL foi semelhante entre os grupos. CONCLUSÃO: O exercício físico durante 5 semanas em roda de atividade voluntária, aumentou a sensibilidade à insulina e a oxidação de ácidos graxos livres no jejum. A melhora da sensibilidade à insulina esteve associada à maior expressão da PGC-1 somente em músculo PLA. Estes dados sugerem que o aumento da sensibilidade à insulina no jejum não se relacionou com o aumento da expressão da PGC-1 em outros tecidos alvos da ação insulínica, como FG e SOL, neste modelo de estudo. / INTRODUCTION: The Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor- - Coactivator 1 ( PGC-1 e ) is a protein responsible for the connection between environmental stimuli and cell metabolic response. Its presence is important in fat tissue, hepatic and skeletal muscle and in animals on brown fat tissue. Interact with nuclear receptors modulating the mitochondrial biogenesis and maintain thermal energy balance with the environment. Diminished of PGC-1 expression and oxidative phophorylation has been associated to insulin resistance in diseases like Type 2 Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effects of exercise on the PGC-1 expression in target tissues of insulin, such as liver and skeletal muscles soleus (SOL) and plantaris (PLA) of male Wistar rats and correlates with insulin sensitivity. METHODOLOGY: Male Wistar rats 190±15g, n = 24, divided randomly into 2 groups: Ex ( physical exercise ) and Sd ( sedentary ), respectively placed in a voluntary running wheel cage or a standard cage for five weeks. At the end of study, after fasting for 4 hours, blood was collected for measurements of glucose ( GLU ), insulin ( INS ) and free fatty acids ( FFA ) then the animals were submitted to Test of Suppression Endogenous Glucose and Insulin, with infusion during 180 minutes of solution GLU ( 20mg/kg/min ) + INS ( 5mU/kg/min ); blood samples was collected at 140, 150, 160, 170 and 180 minutes. Finished the test and still anesthetized, the tissues were removed: liver ( LIV ), skeletal muscle ( SOL and PLA ) that were immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at -70ºC until analysis. The PGC-1 expression was evaluated by Western Blotting with polyclonal antibody anti-PGC-1. Statistical analysis by unpaired Students t test with significance level 5%. RESULTS: the data refer to the mean and standard error of individual values. The distance covered per day during last week ( km / day ) by Ex group was efficient ( 5,61 ± 0,67 ). There was no difference in weight ( g ) of rats between Ex and Sd groups ( 355,85 ± 9,51 x 375,68 ± 5,30 ) NS. The values of fasting GLU were similar between groups ( mg/dl ) ( 117,6 ± 3,7 x 122,4 ± 2,6 ) NS. However INS and FFA were lower in group Ex: INS ( ng/ml ) ( 0,68 ± 0,12 x 1,45 ± 0,14 ) p < 0,001 and FFA ( mEq/L ) ( 1,12 ± 0,11 x 1,60 ± 0,11 ) p < 0,006. During the suppression test the values of GLU and INS on stability step were similar between groups ( expressed in area under curve ): AUC GlU ( mg/dl/min ) ( 2,77 ± 0,12 x 2,95 ± 0,07 ) NS; AUC INS ( ng/ml/min ) ( 0,81 ± 0,15 x 0,99 ± 0,09 ) NS. The PGC-1 expression was greater in PLA of rats Ex than Sd group, and there was no difference in LIV and SOL between groups. CONCLUSION: The physical exercise during five weeks in voluntary running wheel increased the insulin sensitivity and fasting free fatty acids oxidation. The improvement of insulin sensitivity was associated with higher PGC-1 expression on PLA muscle only. These data suggest that increasing insulin sensibility on fasting is not associated with increasing of the PGC-1 expression in others targets tissues of insulin action, such as LIV and SOL, in this study model.

It is well established that improved nutritional strategies can enhance both health and exercise performance. Scientific developments in recent years have furthered our understanding of cellular metabolism, which in turn, has provided an additional platform to investigate the impact of diet on health and adaptation. The overall aim of this research programme was to build on the current understanding of dietary intake in athletes and the impact dietary manipulation has on cellular and metabolic adaptation at rest and in combination with endurance training. It is postulated that nutrition is the most controllable risk factor impacting long-term health and chronic disease (World-Health-Organization, 2003), and enhanced knowledge of nutrition has been associated with improved dietary choices. A number of nutrition knowledge questionnaires have been developed to assess this; however the validity of each tool is reduced if implemented outside the target population. A valid and reliable general and sport nutrition knowledge questionnaire had not yet been developed. Using a parallel groups repeated measures study design (N = 101) the aim of the first experimental Chapter (Chapter 4) was to develop a new tool to measure general and sport nutrition knowledge in UK track and field athletes. Following the questionnaire design 53 nutrition educated and 48 non-nutrition educated participants completed the questionnaire on two occasions separated by three weeks. The results of the process demonstrated face and construct validity from the development of the question pool, content validity (the nutrition educated group scored > 30% higher that the non-nutrition educated group), reliability (test - retest correlation of 0.98, p < 0.05) and internal consistency (Chronbach's alpha value > 0.7) as such establishing a new tool (Nutrition knowledge Questionnaire for Athletes (NKQA)) for the assessment of general and sport nutrition knowledge in track and field athletes. Athletes' diets are commonly reported as inadequate and previous work has demonstrated a weak positive relationship between diet quality and nutrition knowledge. Additionally a commercially available tool, the metabolic typing questionnaire, claims to identify individual metabolic function and subsequently prescribe a personalised diet to optimise health. Thus the aim of the second experimental Chapter (Chapter 5) was to quantify nutrition knowledge (using the questionnaire developed in Chapter 4), measure diet intake and quality and investigate the efficacy of the metabolic typing questionnaire in UK track and field athletes. Using a parallel groups repeated measures design participants (UK track and field athletes n = 59, and non-athletic control group n = 29) completed a food diary, the NKQA and the metabolic typing questionnaire at two time points through the year (October and April) to investigate seasonal change. The results of the metabolic typing questionnaire concluded that 94.3% of the participants were the same dietary type and would subsequently have been prescribed the same diet. Athletes possess greater general and sport nutrition knowledge the non-athletes (60.4 ± 2.0 % vs. 48.6 ± 1.5 %) and also had better diet quality (76.8 ± 10.5 % vs. 67.6 ± 2.6 %). However no relationship was observed between individual nutrition knowledge score and diet quality (r2 = 0.003, p = 0.63). No difference in dietary intake was observed between power and endurance athletes; average diet intake consisted of 57.0% carbohydrate, 17.1% protein and 25.9% fat. The metabolic typing diet is based around three different diets: high carbohydrate, high protein and mixed diet. The results from Chapter 5 identified that the metabolic typing questionnaire was not able to differentiate between metabolic function in healthy individuals. Additionally all athletes, independent of event (power vs. endurance), consumed similar diets. With such similarities a clearer understanding of the impact such diets have at a cellular level is required. Therefore for the remainder of the thesis it was decided to investigate the impact of dietary manipulation utilising more robust measures. Mitochondria are responsible for energy production; their quantity and density have been associated with improved health and endurance performance. External stressors such as energy reduction, carbohydrate restriction and exercise are potent stimulators of transcription markers of mitochondrial biogenesis. Thus manipulating carbohydrate and energy availability in vivo may enhance cellular adaptation and limited literature exists on the impact increased protein intake has on this. The aim of Chapter 6 was to investigate the impact of acute (7-day) continuous dietary manipulation on metabolic markers, body composition and resting metabolic rate (RMR). Using a repeated measures parallel group (N = 45) design, participants were randomly assigned one of four diets: high protein hypocaloric, high carbohydrate hypocaloric, high protein eucaloric or high carbohydrate eucaloric. The macronutrient ratio of the high protein diets was 40% protein, 30 % carbohydrate and 30% fat, the high carbohydrate diets were 10% protein, 60% carbohydrate and 30% fat. Energy intake in the hypocaloric diets was matched to resting metabolic rate (RMR). Participants consumed habitual diet for 7-days then baseline measures were collected (skeletal muscle biopsy, dual energy X-ray absorptiometry scan (DXA) and RMR, habitual diet was consumed for a further 7-days and repeat testing was completed (these time points were used as a control), the intervention diet was then consumed for 7-days and post measures were collected. The results of the skeletal muscle biopsy demonstrated no group x time interaction in any marker, however a pre-post time difference subsequent to the high protein hypocaloric diet (the diet which induced the greatest metabolic stress) was observed in four transcriptional markers of mitochondrial biogenesis (pre-post intervention fold increase: PCG1-α 1.27, AMPK 2.09, SIRT1 1.5, SIRT3 1.19, p < 0.05). The results of the DXA scan demonstrated that the high protein hypocaloric group lost significantly more fat mass than the high carbohydrate eucaloric group (-0.99 kg vs. -0.50 kg, p < 0.015). Irrespective of macronutrient ratio, no energy-matched between group difference was observed in lean mass (LM) loss. However when matched for macronutrient ratio the high protein diet attenuated LM loss to a greater extent that the high carbohydrate diet, suggesting an important role of increased protein intake in the maintenance of lean mass. No time point or group difference in RMR was observed. This data suggests that a high protein low carbohydrate hypocaloric diet may provide a stimulus to promote skeletal muscle metabolic adaptation. The aim of the final experimental Chapter (Chapter 7) in this thesis was to explore the impact exercise in combination with a high protein diet on metabolic adaptation, substrate utilisation and exercise performance in well trained runners. Using a parallel groups repeated measures study design the participants (well-trained endurance runners, N = 16) consumed normal habitual diet for 7-days, then 7-days intervention diet (high protein eucaloric or high carbohydrate eucaloric, same dietary ratios as Chapter 6) and finally returned to habitual diet for 7-days, training was consistent throughout. A pre exercise muscle biopsy was taken subsequent to each diet and immediately followed by a 10 km sub-maximal run and a time to exhaustion run (TTE) at 95% of velocity at maximal aerobic capacity (vV̇O2max). Post intervention the high protein group presented significant changes in sub-maximal substrate utilisation with 101% increase in fat oxidation (0.59 g·min-1, p = 0.0001). No changes were observed in substrate utilisation in the high carbohydrate group. A trend towards a reduction in average weekly running speed was observed in the PRO group (-0.9 km·h-1), the high carbohydrate group maintained the same training speed. TTE was decreased (-23.3%, p = 0.0003) in the high protein group subsequent to the intervention, no change was observed in subsequent to the high carbohydrate diet. / The high carbohydrate group demonstrated preferential increases in markers of metabolic adaptations (fold increase: AMPK = 1.44 and PPAR = 1.32, p < 0.05) suggesting that training intensity, rather than carbohydrate restriction, may be a more profound driver of metabolic adaptation. All performance measures, in both groups, returned to pre intervention levels once habitual diet was returned; however the increased gene expression observed in the high carbohydrate group remained elevated 7-days post intervention. The increased metabolic stress imposed by reducing carbohydrate intake did not increase transcriptional markers of mitochondrial biogenesis. For continuous endurance training and high intensity endurance performance a high carbohydrate diet is preferential to a high protein diet.

Pressure gain combustion is a form of combustion that uses pressure waves to transfer energy and generate a rise in total pressure during the combustion process. Pressure gain combustion shows potential to increase the cycle efficiency of conventional gas turbine engines if used in place of the steady combustor. However, one of the challenges of integrating pressure gain combustion into a gas turbine engine is that a turbine driven by pulsing flow experiences a decrease in efficiency. The interaction of pressure pulses with a turbine was investigated to gain physical insights and to provide guidelines for designing turbines to be driven by pulsing flow. An experimental rig was built to compare steady flow with pulsing flow. Compressed air was used in place of combustion gases; pressure pulses were created by rotating a ball valve with a motor. The data showed that a turbine driven by full annular pressure pulses has a decrease in turbine efficiency and pressure ratio. The average decrease in turbine efficiency was 0.12 for 10 Hz, 0.08 for 20 Hz, and 0.04 for 40 Hz. The turbine pressure ratio, defined as the turbine exit total pressure divided by the turbine inlet total pressure, ranged from 0.55 to 0.76. The average decrease in turbine pressure ratio was 0.082 for 10 Hz, 0.053 for 20 Hz, and 0.064 for 40 Hz. The turbine temperature ratio and specific turbine work were constant. Pressure pulse amplitude, not frequency, was shown to be the main cause for the decrease in turbine efficiency. Computational fluid dynamics simulations were created and were validated with the experimental results. Simulations run at the same conditions as the experiments showed a decrease in turbine efficiency of 0.24 for 10 Hz, 0.12 for 20 Hz, and 0.05 for 40 Hz. In agreement with the experimental results, the simulations also showed that pressure pulse amplitude is the driving factor for decreased turbine efficiency and not the pulsing frequency. For a pulsing amplitude of 86.5 kPa, the efficiency difference between a 10 Hz and a 40 Hz simulation was only 0.005. A quadratic correlation between turbine efficiency and corrected pulse amplitude was presented with an R-squared value of 0.99. Incidence variation was shown to cause the change in turbine efficiency and a correlation between corrected incidence and corrected amplitude was established. The turbine geometry was then optimized for pulsing flow conditions. Based on the optimization results and observations, design recommendations were made for designing turbines for pulsing flow. The first design recommendation was to weight the design of the turbine toward the peak of the pressure pulse. The second design recommendation was to consider the range of inlet angles and reduce the camber near the leading edge of the blade. The third design recommendation was to reduce the blade turning to reduce the wake caused by pulsing flow. A new turbine design was created and tested following these design recommendations. The time-accurate validation simulation for a 10 Hz pressure pulse showed that the new turbine decreased the entropy generation by 35% and increased the efficiency by 0.04 (5.4%).