Esta tese de doutorado explora uma faceta ainda obscura nos estudos sobre a democracia e a participação, que consiste na difusão internacional de ideias e tecnologias de governança participativa. As pesquisas recentes sobre este tema têm insistido na influência de atores diversos para explicar o fenômeno da difusão, atribuindo ênfase especial às Organizações Internacionais. A indicação de modelos específicos da parte de tais instituições é frequente, como no caso do Orçamento Participativo (OP), que hoje conta com mais de 2800 experiências ao redor do globo. No entanto, seriam suficientes as orientações de instituições internacionais para explicar a difusão de ideias e tecnologias de governança participativa? Situada entre a análise de políticas públicas e o estudo das relações internacionais, a proposta da pesquisa de doutorado foi de examinar o processo de difusão do OP, por meio de metodologia qualitativa, combinando entrevistas em profundidade, observação participante e análise de documentos. O estudo foi desenvolvido a partir da análise de um caso de origem, Porto Alegre, e diversos casos de transferência na África Subsaariana e na América Latina. Os resultados de pesquisa apontam para a existência de um fluxo global, movimentos de difusão regional, como na região dos Andes, e movimentos pontuais de transferência, em que o OP se desloca de uma instituição à outra, como de Porto Alegre, no Brasil, para o município de Cotacachi, no Equador, ou ainda para Maputo, no Moçambique. Foi possível constatar que a ação de um conjunto de indivíduos foi fundamental para inserir o OP na agenda internacional, bem como para auxiliar nos processos de transferência no exterior. Uma vez que o OP se legitima no plano externo, as Organizações Internacionais passam a fazer mais diferença, pois financiam experiências, organizam oficínas de capacitação de quadros e produzem manuais de implementação. A técnica utilizada para realizar este estudo foi a do rastreamento do processo, que procura identificar as cadeias de mecanismos causais que afetam um determinado fenômeno. A dimensão empírica da pesquisa foi composta por fontes primárias. Para este estudo foram feitas mais de 120 entrevistas em profundidade em nove países (África do Sul, Brasil, Equador, Espanha, Estados Unidos da América, França, Moçambique, Peru, Senegal). Além disso, foi realizada observação participante em eventos internacionais e também foram coletados materiais in loco, como documentos oficiais, artigos da imprensa e arquivos multimídia. / This thesis explores an obscure facet in studies about democracy and participation, namely the international diffusion of ideas and technologies on participatory governance. Recent researches on the topic highlight the influence of various actors to explain the diffusion phenomenon, drawing particular attention to international organizations. These institutions often recommend the use of specific models, as in the case of the Participatory Budgeting (PB), which currently accounts over 2800 experiences worldwide. Nonetheless, do recommendations from international institutions suffice to explain the transfer of ideas and technologies on participatory governance? Situated between public policy analysis and the study of international relations, this doctoral research seeks to examine the transfer of Participatory Budgeting through a qualitative methodology, combining in-depth interviews, participant observation and document analysis. This research is based on the analysis of the key case of Porto Alegre and several cases of transfer in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. Research findings indicate there is a global flow, a regional diffusion, as in the Andes, and also isolated transfers, in which PB streams from one institution to another, as exemplified on the transfer from Porto Alegre, Brazil, to the municipality of Cotacachi, Ecuador, or to Maputo in Mozambique. It was found that the actions of a group of individuals were crucial to make PB part of the international agenda. These actors have also assisted to promote transfers abroad. Once Participatory Budgeting becomes legitimate abroad, international organizations play a bigger role since they finance these experiences, organize training workshops for staff and develop implementation manuals. The technique used to conduct this study was the process-tracing, which seeks to identify chains of causal mechanisms that affect a particular phenomenon. The empirical dimension of this research is composed of primary sources. For this study, over 120 in-depth interviews in nine countries (South Africa, Brazil, Ecuador, Spain, United States, France, Mozambique, Peru, Senegal) were made. Furthermore, there were participant observations in international events and the collection of materials on-site, such as official documents, press articles and multimedia files.

Submitted by Fabio Sobreira Campos da Costa (fabio.sobreira@ufpe.br) on 2017-04-20T12:39:56Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Dissertação Alyne.pdf: 544449 bytes, checksum: 8a26d8e01d9c13c955a21271ca4ec83e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-04-20T12:39:56Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Dissertação Alyne.pdf: 544449 bytes, checksum: 8a26d8e01d9c13c955a21271ca4ec83e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-09-30 / O principal objetivo deste trabalho é identificar quais fatores explicam a adesão dos municípios mato-grossenses ao Programa Caminho da Escola, no período de 2008 a 2010. Neste trabalho, propomos explorar a difusão das políticas sociais no Brasil, um país recentemente redemocratizado e também uma federação altamente descentralizada. O trabalho também inova ao analisar o papel dos fatores internos e externos na difusão política usando uma análise de unidade não convencional, ou seja, os governos locais. É interessante notar que a Constituição Brasileira de 1988 reconhece os municípios como jurisdições autônomas, dando-lhes consideráveis atribuições no que tange às políticas públicas. No sentido de avançar na explicação dos determinantes tanto internos e externos da difusão política no Brasil, empregamos uma análise de cross section nos três anos em questão, utilizando os dados sobre umas das políticas sociais do país, o Programa Caminho da Escola. A partir desse referencial teórico a pesquisa buscou responder as seguintes hipóteses: (1) quando o prefeito e o presidente são do mesmo partido, maior a possibilidade de adesão ao programa; (2) quanto maior o numero de alunos matriculados na zona rural maior a possibilidade de adesão; (3) prefeito de segundo mandato tende a não aderir ao programa; e (4) quanto maior o PIB per capita, maior a possibilidade de adesão. Metodologicamente a pesquisa baseou-se em análises estatísticas, principalmente a análise de regressão logística múltipla, ou seja, foi testada a relação da variável dependente “aderiu” com as variáveis independentes “partido presidente”, “renovação política”, “log matricula rural” e “PIB per capita deflacionado”. Os resultados obtidos sugerem que há uma explicação para a difusão da política, sendo que o numero de matriculas efetivadas na zona rural e o PIB per capita apresentaram resultados significantes. As demais variáveis apresentaram significância abaixo do nível aceitável, ou seja, seriam necessários estudos mais aprofundados para afirmar tal influência na difusão do programa. / The main objective of this work is to identify which factors explain the accession of Mato Grosso municipalities the Way to School Program in the State of Mato Grosso, from 2008 to 2010. In this work, we propose to explore the diffusion of social policies in Brazil, a country recently redemocratized and also a highly decentralized federation. The work also breaks new ground by examining the role of internal and external factors in policy diffusion using an unconventional analysis unit, or local governments. Interestingly, the 1988 Brazilian Constitution recognizes municipalities as autonomous jurisdictions, giving them considerable powers in relation to public policies. In order to advance in the explanation of both internal and external determinants of policy diffusion in Brazil, employ a cross section analysis of the three years in question, using the data on one of the country's social policies, the Way to School Program. From this research theoretical framework sought to answer the following cases: (1) where the mayor and the president are the same party, the greater the possibility of joining the program; (2) the higher the number of registrations made in most rural areas the likelihood of accession; (3) Mayor second term tends not to join the program; and (4) the higher the GDP per capita the likelihood of adherence reduces. Methodologically research was based on statistical analysis, especially the analysis of multiple logistic regression, that is, we tested the relationship of the dependent variable "joined" with the independent variables "party chairman", "political renewal", "rural registration log" and "GDP per capita deflated." The results suggest that there is an explanation for the spread of the policy, and the number of registrations effected in the countryside and the GDP per capita show significant results. The remaining variables were significant below the acceptable level, ie, it would take further study to affirm that influence the program broadcasting.

Cette thèse de doctorat porte sur une facette encore peu explorée dans les études sur la démocratie et la participation : la diffusion internationale d’idées et de technologies sur la gouvernance participative. Les recherches récentes sur ce thème ont insisté sur l’influence des différents acteurs afin d’expliquer le phénomène de la diffusion, en accordant une attention particulière aux organisations internationales. La préconisation de modèles spécifiques de la part de ces institutions est fréquente, comme dans le cas du Budget Participatif (BP), qui, de nos jours, compte plus de 2800 expériences réparties à travers le monde. Cependant, les orientations des institutions internationales suffisent-elles à expliquer la diffusion d’idées et de technologies de gouvernance participative ? Située entre analyse de politiques publiques et étude des relations internationales, cette recherche de doctorat se propose d’examiner le processus de diffusion du BP, au travers d’une méthodologie qualitative, combinant entretiens approfondis, observation participante et analyse de documents. L’étude a été développée à partir d’un cas précurseur, Porto Alegre, et de différents cas de transfert en Afrique Subsaharienne et en Amérique Latine. Les résultats de la recherche semblent indiquer l’existence d’un flux global, de mouvements de diffusion régionale – comme dans la région des Andes –, et de mouvements ponctuels de transfert, au sein desquels le BP se déplace d’une institution à une autre, comme de Porto Alegre, au Brésil, vers la municipalité de Cotacachi, en Équateur, ou encore à Maputo, au Mozambique. L’action d’un ensemble d’individus a été fondamentale pour introduire le BP dans l’agenda international, ainsi que pour aider les processus de transfert à l’étranger. Une fois le BP légitimé au niveau international, les organisations internationales se démarquent, car elles financent les expériences, organisent des ateliers de formation de cadres et produisent du matériel d’implantation. / This thesis explores an obscure facet in studies about democracy and participation, namely the international diffusion of ideas and technologies on participatory governance. Recent researches on the topic highlight the influence of various actors to explain the diffusion phenomenon, drawing particular attention to international organizations. These institutions often recommend the use of specific models, as in the case of the Participatory Budgeting (PB), which currently accounts over 2800 experiences worldwide. Nonetheless, do recommendations from international institutions suffice to explain the transfer of ideas and technologies on participatory governance? Situated between public policy analysis and the study of international relations, this doctoral research seeks to examine the transfer of Participatory Budgeting through a qualitative methodology, combining in-depth interviews, participant observation and document analysis. This research is based on the analysis of the key case of Porto Alegre and several cases of transfer in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. Research findings indicate there is a global flow, a regional diffusion, as in the Andes, and also isolated transfers, in which PB streams from one institution to another, as exemplified on the transfer from Porto Alegre, Brazil, to the municipality of Cotacachi, Ecuador, or to Maputo in Mozambique. It was found that the actions of a group of individuals were crucial to make PB part of the international agenda. These actors have also assisted to promote transfers abroad. Once Participatory Budgeting becomes legitimate abroad, international organizations play a bigger role since they finance these experiences, organize training workshops for staff and develop implementation manuals. / Esta tese de doutorado explora uma faceta ainda obscura nos estudos sobre a democracia e a participação, que consiste na difusão internacional de ideias e tecnologias de governança participativa. As pesquisas recentes sobre este tema têm insistido na influência de atores diversos para explicar o fenômeno da difusão, atribuindo ênfase especial às organizações internacionais. A indicação de modelos específicos da parte de tais instituições é frequente, como no caso do Orçamento Participativo (OP), que hoje conta com mais de 2800 experiências ao redor do globo. No entanto, seriam suficientes as orientações de instituições internacionais para explicar a difusão de ideias e tecnologias de governança participativa? Situada entre a análise de políticas públicas e o estudo das relações internacionais, a proposta da pesquisa de doutorado foi de examinar o processo de difusão do OP, por meio de metodologia qualitativa, combinando entrevistas em profundidade, observação participante e análise de documentos. O estudo foi desenvolvido a partir da análise de um caso de origem, Porto Alegre, e diversos casos de transferência na África Subsaariana e na América Latina. Os resultados de pesquisa apontam para a existencia um fluxo global, movimentos de difusão regional, como na região dos Andes, e movimentos pontuais de transferência, em que o OP se desloca de uma instituição à outra, como de Porto Alegre, no Brasil, para o município de Cotacachi, no Equador, ou ainda para Maputo, no Moçambique. Foi possível constatar que a ação de um conjunto de indivíduos foi fundamental para inserir o OP na agenda internacional, bem como para auxiliar nos processos de transferência no exterior. Uma vez que o OP se legitima no plano externo as organizações internacionais passam a fazer mais diferença, pois financiam experiências, organizam oficínas de capacitação de quadros e produzem manuais de implementação. A técnica utilizada para realizar este estudo foi a do “rastreamento do processo”, que procura identificar as cadeias de mecanismos causais que afetam um determinado fenômeno.

This diploma thesis describes the origins of harm reduction (HR) in the Czech drug policy. It focuses on the role of HR in national strategies and the development of syringe and needle program and substitution treatment. The aim of the thesis is to describe and explain how the HR approach was developed in the Czech environment. Using the framework of policy diffusion, the author explains the mechanisms by which harm reduction was transferred from abroad. Thesis describes the history of drug policy and the development of the harm reduction approach in the world. This information forms the context in which the author advocates HR development in the Czech Republic's drug policy after 1989. By analysing expert texts and expert interviews she explains how the first national strategies were formed in which HR has been included since 1993. Similarly, it deals with the beginnings of syringe exchange, which has been in operation since 1986, and substitution treatment that was first used in 1992 and has been officially operational since 1997. The mechanisms of diffusion of HR from abroad to the Czech Republic are defined. In all three areas, the mechanism of learning is defined. Substitution treatment and national strategies are also defined by the mechanism of emulation. To a lesser extent, a mechanism of...

Denna uppsats fokuserar på den etableringsprocess som har skett i Jönköpings kommun vid införandet av familjecentraler. Syftet med studien är att undersöka hur införandet av familjecentraler kan förstås och genom det skapa fördjupad kunskap om etableringsprocesser i socialt arbete. Studien har genomförts i form av en fallstudie. Empiri har samlats in genom intervjuer och genom offentliga allmänna handlingar. Materialet har analyserats genom ett adhoc-förfarande inspirerat av fallstudieanalys. Teorier som använts i analysen grundar sig i agenda-settingteori och i nyinstitutionell organisationsteori. Resultatet visar att familjecentraler som idé är omtolkningsbart vilket resulterat i en omfattande översättningsprocess. I den processen har socialtjänstens roll varit decimerad, vilket avspeglas i det utrymme som socialtjänsten ges på familjecentralerna där deras roll definieras av andra professioner än de själva. Det som gör att familjecentralerna kommer att etableras är en kritik mot och från barnhälsovården rörande relationen med socialtjänsten. Detta ackompanjeras av en ökad oro för föräldraskapet samt ökade krav på billigare och bättre verksamheter inom den offentliga sektorn. Dock får familjecentralsetableringen ett abrupt avbrott i och med att studier lyfts fram som indikerar att det finns bristande kunskaper rörande familjecentralernas effekt, vilket skapar hinder för nyetableringar. Detta medför inte att befintliga familjecentraler läggs ner vilket kan förstås i att familjecentralspolicyn visar en hög grad av institutionalisering, en stark förgivettagen tro på familjecentralerna, där dessa upphör att behöva legitimeras i form av problemadressering och resultat. / This bachelor thesis focuses on the establishment process of family centers in Jönköping municipality, Sweden. The purpose of this case-study is to examine on which terms the establishment of family centers can be understood aiming for the creation of in-depth knowledge about establishment processes in social work. Data has been collected via semi-structured interviews and via open records. The data has been analyzed via ad-hoc analyses inspired by cases study analyses. Theoretical framework used in the study is Kingdon’s agenda setting theory and neo-institutional organization theory. The study presents that family centre policy is highly interpretable and therefore has been a case of policy translation, which has resulted in a decimated part for the social services in the family centers, highly defined by other professions. The establishment of family centers is a result of a critique aimed against and from the child health care services, accompanied with an increased worry for parenthood and demands for more economically efficient function within the public sector. The process is interrupted by studies that indicate insufficient knowledge about the efficiency of the family centers. However this doesn’t result in closure of family centers because the function has reached a high degree of institutionalization, where it is legitimized by presumptions and beliefs rather than results and problem addressing.

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Thèse de doctorat de l’Université de Montréal en cotutelle avec l’Université Paris-Diderot. Présentée et soutenue publiquement à Paris le 3 juillet 2019. / Problématique : Le caractère polycentrique de la gouvernance de santé mondiale fait émerger depuis une vingtaine d’années des pôles d’influence politique de différents niveaux. Depuis la fin des années 2000, des acteurs influents appuient la mise en œuvre d’une réforme de financement de la santé : le financement basé sur la performance (FBP). Le FBP repose sur le transfert de ressources financières conditionnelles à la performance des prestataires de santé. En dépit d’une absence d’unanimité sur les preuves scientifiques de son efficacité, la politique a été expérimentée dans plus de 70% des 46 pays d’Afrique subsaharienne. Les projets de FBP sont promus par des réseaux d’experts transnationaux (nouveaux acteurs de la gouvernance polycentrique), financés par des bailleurs de fonds, et appuyés par des assistants techniques provenant le plus souvent d’Europe et d’Amérique du Nord. Au-delà du pouvoir financier, ces acteurs exercent d’autres formes de pouvoir moins visibles pour stimuler la diffusion de cette politique. Introduisant le concept d’“entrepreneurs de la diffusion”, nous utilisons une approche d’économie politique pour comprendre les interactions sociales en jeu dans le processus de diffusion entre les acteurs agissant aux niveaux global, continental et national, ainsi que les relations de pouvoir asymétriques inhérentes à ces interactions. Pour cela, nous réalisons une étude interprétative à niveaux d’analyse imbriqués (global, continental, national). Cadre conceptuel : Nous utilisons un cadre conceptuel interdisciplinaire empruntant aux champs des politiques publiques, des relations internationales, et de la santé mondiale. Nous analysons les caractéristiques des entrepreneurs de la diffusion – leurs systèmes de représentation (leur perception du monde et présupposés sous-jacents), ressources, types d’autorité, et motivations – et les stratégies qu’ils utilisent pour favoriser la diffusion du FBP. Ces stratégies incluent : l’ancrage idéationnel de la politique (policy framing), la stimulation de l’émulation par la constitution de réseaux (policy emulation), la conduite de l’agenda d’apprentissage sur le FBP (policy learning), et la fixation de standards et cadres de collaboration pour assurer une expérimentation réussie du FBP (policy experimentation). Méthodologie : L’objet principal de la thèse est la diffusion du FBP en Afrique subsaharienne, qui s’articule autour d’influents « entrepreneurs de la diffusion » (cinq organisations, trois réseaux transnationaux, et plus d’une vingtaine d’individus). Trois études ont été réalisées à trois niveaux différents : niveau global (arènes politiques de santé mondiale et instituts de recherche européens), niveau continental (Afrique subsaharienne), et niveau national (cas du Mali). L’approche d’analyse est principalement qualitative : nous avons collecté des données d’entretiens approfondis (N=57), d’observations participantes (N=13) et de documents (N=41). Dans l’étude à échelle continentale, ces données qualitatives sont complétées par des analyses de réseaux sociaux et des analyses sémantiques à partir de 1 346 messages de forum. Ces données quantitatives complètent la caractérisation de l’un des réseaux transnationaux et son influence sur la diffusion du FBP. Valeur de la recherche : Cette recherche constitue la première analyse d’économie politique détaillant des processus multiniveaux et protéiformes (discours, constitution en réseaux, et production et dissémination de multiples formes de savoirs) conduits par des acteurs influents – les entrepreneurs de la diffusion – afin de faciliter la diffusion d’une innovation politique (le FBP) dans le contexte particulier de la gouvernance polycentrique. Cette étude apporte d’importantes contributions théoriques et empiriques à la littérature. Premièrement, elle offre un cadre conceptuel novateur adapté au contexte de la santé mondiale et de la gouvernance polycentrique, qui peut être appliqué à divers types de recherche. Deuxièmement, elle fournit des analyses empiriques utiles sur les processus de gouvernance polycentrique, qui ont été jusqu’ici peu étudiés. Mettant en lumière l’exercice du pouvoir d’acteurs européens et nord-américains dans leur interaction avec des consultants et décideurs africains, cette étude ouvre également la voie à d’autres recherches, notamment sur le phénomène de fabrique d’une expertise africaine. / Background: Over the past 20 years, the polycentric nature of global health governance has shaped the emergence of autonomous actors with political influence at different levels. Since the late 2000s, influential policy actors have been supporting the implementation of a health financing reform: Performance-based financing (PBF). PBF relies on the transfer of financial resources conditional on the performance of health providers. In contrast to input financing systems, this mechanism focuses on achieving results based on performance targets. Despite a lack of consensus on the scientific evidence of its effectiveness, the policy has been tested in more than 70% of 46 sub-Saharan African countries. PBF projects are promoted by transnational expert networks (i.e., autonomous actors of polycentric governance), funded by donors, and supported by technical assistants, mostly coming from Europe and North America. Beyond their financial power, these actors exert other less visible forms of power to stimulate the diffusion of PBF. Introducing the concept of diffusion entrepreneurs, we use a political economy approach to explore the social interactions at play in the diffusion process between actors across global/continental/national levels, and the asymmetrical power relations embedded within those interactions. To do so, we carry out an interpretative study with nested analysis levels (global, continental, national). Conceptual Framework: We use an interdisciplinary conceptual framework borrowing from the fields of public policy, international relations, and global health. We analyse the characteristics of diffusion entrepreneurs — their representation systems (their underlying assumptions about the world), resources, types of authority, and motivations — and the strategies they use to promote the diffusion of PBF. These strategies include: policy framing, stimulating emulation through policy emulation, driving the learning agenda on policy learning (FBP), and the setting of standards and frameworks of collaboration to ensure a successful experimentation of the FBP (policy experimentation). Methods: The thesis research object is the diffusion of PBF in sub-Saharan Africa, which involves influential diffusion entrepreneurs (five organisations, three transnational networks, and about two dozen individuals). Three studies were conducted at three different levels: global level (global health policy arenas and European research institutes), continental level (sub-Saharan Africa), and national level (Mali case). The analysis approach is mainly qualitative: we collected data from in-depth interviews (N = 57), participant observations (N = 13) and documents (N = 41). In the study on continental-level diffusion, qualitative data are supplemented by social network analyses and semantic discourse analyses based on 1,346 forum posts. These quantitative data complement the characterisation of a transnational network’s structure and how it influences policy diffusion. Research value: This research is the first political economy analysis detailing multilevel and multifaceted processes (discourse, networks, and production and dissemination of multiple forms of knowledge) led by influential policy actors — diffusion entrepreneurs — to foster the expansion of a policy innovation (PBF) in the specific context of polycentric governance. This study makes important theoretical and empirical contributions to the literature. First, it offers an innovative conceptual framework adapted to the contexts of global health and polycentric governance. The framework can be applied to a variety of research designs. Second, it provides useful insights on the processes of policy diffusion in polycentric governance, thereby filling a research gap on the phenomenon of polycentrism. By highlighting European and North American actors’ exercise of power in their interaction with African consultants and policymakers, this study also paves the way for future research — particularly on the phenomenon of the making of an African expertise.

To meet the ambitious goals of carbon neutrality by 2050 that the European Union has set for itself, urban mobility is going to have to contribute much more to the overall reduction of greenhouse emissions. Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs) are the latest policy of choice coming from the European Commission set to deal with this issue. Interdisciplinary and based on best practices, this holistic transport strategy focuses on people, both as stakeholders in the planning process and as its ultimate beneficiaries. Although successful and popular, the take up process of these policies has been rather uneven across European cities. This paper attempts to uncover what possibly influences decision makers in small and medium sized European cities to adopt a SUMP, via binomial logistic regression on a large subset of cities (296) in 12 EU countries. The findings suggest that cities, which are in geographic proximity to an award-winning city, that have in their vicinity a higher education institution and that have continuously participated in European Mobility Week events, exemplify a higher likelihood to adopt a SUMP. Additionally, we differentiate between city networks, by grouping them as a "commitment" network and a "project" network. The findings indicate that, "commitment" networks have no...

Latin America has experienced a new militarization in the last five years despite its history filled with military dictatorships and authoritarian governments. Due to their high rates of violence and crime worldwide, the countries with the most severe militarization process are Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras. Therefore, this work seeks to find the relationship between the militarization of public security in the four countries.  To address the research question posed by this study, a mixed methodology based on quantitative and qualitative data was employed in conjunction with the theoretical framework of policy diffusion, a subdiscipline of International Relations that has gained relevancy for the past two decades. The findings indicated that a diffusion process occurred in multiple dimensions, first involving the United States and stemming from the interaction between the four countries. Furthermore, this work discusses the relationship between the diffusion process among the four countries with international norms.